WeiMeiJiao Warm, firm discipline from birth to age 12

Research

Whenever the site says what works, what harms or what is normal at an age, it shows where that comes from. This page explains how to read research, then lists every source.

How to read the research

Studies differ in what they can tell you. This short guide explains the labels on each source below and what the numbers mean.

Types of study and what each can show

Each source in the list carries a label for the kind of study it is:

  • Meta-analysis: combines the results of many studies on the same question into one overall estimate. One meta-analysis on this site pooled 77 evaluations of parenting programs.11
  • Systematic review: finds every study that meets set criteria and compares them, with or without combining the numbers. Like a meta-analysis, it is only as good as the studies that go into it.
  • Randomized trial: families are put into groups by chance, so a difference afterwards is very likely caused by what the researchers changed. In one, 405 mothers were randomly assigned either to start a bedtime routine or to carry on as usual.121
  • Experiment: researchers change one thing under controlled conditions, often briefly and with a small group. Experiments can show how something works, but not always that it works the same way at home.
  • Longitudinal study: follows the same children over time. It shows what tends to come before what, but on its own it cannot prove cause and effect. One followed 10,658 Canadian children between ages 2 and 11.71
  • Cross-sectional study: a snapshot at one point in time. It is good for showing how common something is, such as how many preschoolers have tantrums.105
  • Pilot study: a small first test, such as a study of time-in with 32 mothers.37 It tells researchers whether something is worth studying properly. It cannot show that it works.
  • Review: experts summarize and interpret a body of research. Reviews are useful, but the authors choose what to include.
  • Position statement: recommendations from a scientific or medical body, published in a peer-reviewed journal, such as the American Academy of Pediatrics’ 2018 policy statement on discipline.64 These combine evidence with expert judgment.

Correlation is not causation

When two things tend to go together, researchers say they are correlated, or linked. That does not mean one causes the other. Families differ in many ways at once, such as stress, money, time and a child’s temperament, and any of these can sit behind a link.

So it helps to notice the wording on this site. When a randomized trial found that something improved an outcome, the case for cause and effect is strong. When a longitudinal or cross-sectional study found that something was “linked with” or “associated with” an outcome, cause and effect is not proven. Reviews “argue” or “conclude,” and position statements “recommend.”

Research on spanking shows why this matters, because the two camps read the same kind of data differently. A meta-analysis covering about 160,000 children found that spanking was linked with a higher risk of detrimental outcomes for children.55 Researchers who hold this majority view weigh the evidence against accepted criteria for cause and effect, conclude that the links are consistent across cultures, families and neighborhoods, and recommend that parents avoid physical punishment.56 A minority of researchers argue that the harmful-looking links are likely due to differences between families that studies could not fully control for. Their meta-analysis found that once children’s earlier adjustment was taken into account, customary spanking explained less than 1% of the remaining variance in each child outcome.62 The American Academy of Pediatrics’ 2018 policy statement recommends against hitting children, including spanking.64 The physical discipline page sets out the majority view and the minority view in full.

Longitudinal studies that take into account how children were doing earlier get closer to cause and effect, but they cannot rule out every other explanation.

Effect sizes: how big is the difference?

A result can be “statistically significant,” meaning it is unlikely to be chance alone, and still be small. An effect size tells you how big a difference is. Many studies report it as d or g: the gap between groups measured in standard deviations, a common yardstick for how spread out the scores are. As a rough rule of thumb, about 0.2 counts as small, 0.5 as medium and 0.8 as large.

Two examples from this site:

  • A meta-analysis of 36 controlled trials found that psychosocial treatments for disruptive behavior in young children had a large effect (g = 0.82).3
  • Another meta-analysis of randomized parenting program trials found that the reduction in disruptive behavior was small when programs were offered to all families (d = 0.21) and larger for families already seeking treatment (d = 0.69).16

The second example shows why context matters: the same kind of program can look small or large depending on who takes part. A small average effect can still be worth having when a method is simple and used every day, and a large effect in a clinic study may not carry over to every family. Averages also hide a range: some children change a lot, others hardly at all.

Some studies report a different measure: how much of the variation between children a factor accounts for, like the “less than 1% of the remaining variance” in the spanking example above.

Evidence levels on this site

The site uses two kinds of labels.

Each source in the list below shows its type of study, as explained above.

Each tool in the Toolbox gets one overall rating for the strength of the evidence behind it:

  • Strong: backed by meta-analyses or several randomized trials, usually as a core part of established parenting programs.
  • Moderate: backed by some controlled studies, or by consistent evidence as part of parenting programs.
  • Emerging: little direct research so far; the case rests on related studies or expert guidance.
  • Contested: credible researchers disagree about whether it helps or harms.

These ratings are the site’s judgment of the evidence as a whole, not the output of a formula. The rating appears on every tool, and the Toolbox evidence key explains them.

On the Encouraging learning pages, a Mixed evidence marker follows any finding where studies disagree or the evidence is weak.

Advice without a small number next to it is practical experience, not a claim that research has proven it works.

Limits of this site

  • Academic sources only. The site cites only peer-reviewed journal articles, systematic reviews and meta-analyses, Cochrane reviews, and policy statements that scientific or medical bodies published in peer-reviewed journals. It does not cite blogs, news stories, parenting websites or organizations’ fact sheets, so some useful practical advice is not here.
  • Checked against abstracts. Each finding was checked against the paper’s abstract, or its page on the journal’s site or PubMed. An abstract is the authors’ short summary, not the full paper, and it can leave out details, limits and exceptions. When a detail was not in what was checked, the site leaves it out.
  • Not every study. These are the sources the site could verify that bear most directly on its topics, not a complete review of all research.
  • Mostly outside Chinese-speaking communities. Most of the research here was done outside Chinese-speaking communities. A few studies come from Chinese families in mainland China and Hong Kong.1017 See research with Chinese families.
  • Averages, not your child. Research describes what tends to happen across many families. You know your child and your circumstances best. If you are worried about your child, see when to get professional help.

All sources

Sources are grouped by topic. Each entry shows the type of study, a link to the original (a DOI, plus PubMed where available), a one-line finding and the pages that cite it. The numbers match the small numbers in the text.

Parenting programs and connection

  1. Barlow, J., Bergman, H., Kornør, H., Wei, Y., & Bennett, C. (2016). Group-based parent training programmes for improving emotional and behavioural adjustment in young children. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews.

    Meta-analysis doi:10.1002/14651858.cd003680.pub3 PubMed 27478983 Entry in Sources

    A Cochrane review of 22 randomized and two quasi-randomized trials involving 3,161 parents of young children (maximum mean age 3 years 11 months) found evidence that group-based behavioral, cognitive-behavioral or videotape-modeling parenting programs reduce children’s overall emotional and behavioral problems.

    Cited on: The best-proven approach

  2. Bearss, K., Johnson, C., Smith, T., Lecavalier, L., Swiezy, N., Aman, M., McAdam, D. B., Butter, E., Stillitano, C., Minshawi, N., Sukhodolsky, D. G., Mruzek, D. W., Turner, K., Neal, T., Hallett, V., Mulick, J. A., Green, B., Handen, B., Deng, Y., . . . Scahill, L. (2015). Effect of Parent Training vs Parent Education on Behavioral Problems in Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA, 313(15), 1524.

    Randomized trial doi:10.1001/jama.2015.3150 PubMed 25898050 Entry in Sources

    In a 24-week randomized trial of 180 children aged 3 to 7 with autism spectrum disorder and disruptive behavior, parent training reduced parent-reported disruptive behavior more than parent education (Aberrant Behavior Checklist-Irritability down 47.7% versus 31.8%) and a blinded clinician rated more children as positive responders, although the clinical significance of the improvement is unclear.

    Cited on: The best-proven approach

  3. Comer, J. S., Chow, C., Chan, P. T., Cooper-Vince, C., & Wilson, L. A. S. (2013). Psychosocial Treatment Efficacy for Disruptive Behavior Problems in Very Young Children: A Meta-Analytic Examination. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 52(1), 26-36.

    Meta-analysis doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2012.10.001 PubMed 23265631 Entry in Sources

    A meta-analysis of 36 controlled trials with 3,042 young children (mean age 4.7 years) found that psychosocial treatments had a large and sustained effect on early disruptive behavior problems (Hedges’ g = 0.82), with the largest effects for behavioral treatments (g = 0.88).

    Cited on: By age: Toddlers (1-3 years), By age: Preschoolers (3-5 years), The best-proven approach, Situations

  4. Daley, D., van der Oord, S., Ferrin, M., Danckaerts, M., Doepfner, M., Cortese, S., & Sonuga-Barke, E. J. S. (2014). Behavioral Interventions in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials Across Multiple Outcome Domains. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 53(8), 835-847.e5.

    Meta-analysis doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2014.05.013 PubMed 25062591 Entry in Sources

    A meta-analysis of 32 randomized controlled trials of behavioral interventions for children and adolescents with ADHD found that, on probably blinded assessments, they improved parenting (SMD 0.63 for positive and 0.43 for negative parenting) and reduced conduct problems (SMD 0.31), while blinded evidence of fewer ADHD symptoms was lacking.

    Cited on: The best-proven approach

  5. Dretzke, J., Davenport, C., Frew, E., Barlow, J., Stewart-Brown, S., Bayliss, S., Taylor, R. S., Sandercock, J., & Hyde, C. (2009). The clinical effectiveness of different parenting programmes for children with conduct problems: a systematic review of randomised controlled trials. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health, 3(1), 7.

    Meta-analysis doi:10.1186/1753-2000-3-7 PubMed 19261188 Entry in Sources

    A systematic review of 57 randomized controlled trials of parenting programs for children up to age 18 with conduct problems found significant benefits on both parent reports (SMD -0.67) and independent reports (SMD -0.44), but insufficient evidence to tell which way of delivering the programs works best.

    Cited on: The best-proven approach

  6. Forgatch, M. S., & DeGarmo, D. S. (1999). Parenting through change: An effective prevention program for single mothers. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 67(5), 711-724.

    Randomized trial doi:10.1037/0022-006x.67.5.711 Entry in Sources

    In a randomized prevention trial with 238 divorcing mothers of sons in grades 1 to 3, a parent-training program reduced observed coercive parenting and prevented a decline in positive parenting; improved parenting was linked with better child adjustment, and the program helped children indirectly, through parenting, rather than directly.

    Cited on: The best-proven approach

  7. Forgatch, M. S., & Kjøbli, J. (2016). Parent Management Training-Oregon Model: Adapting intervention with rigorous research. Family Process, 55(3), 500-513.

    Review doi:10.1111/famp.12224 PubMed 27283222 Entry in Sources

    This review describes PMTO, a set of parenting programs tested in efficacy and effectiveness trials across contexts, cultures and formats, in which parents learn skill encouragement, limit setting, monitoring and supervision, interpersonal problem solving and positive involvement; the programs prevent and reduce children’s behavior problems by replacing coercive interactions with positive parenting.

    Cited on: By age: School age (7-10 years), The best-proven approach

  8. Furlong, M., McGilloway, S., Bywater, T., Hutchings, J., Smith, S. M., & Donnelly, M. (2012). Behavioural and cognitive-behavioural group-based parenting programmes for early-onset conduct problems in children aged 3 to 12 years. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2012(2).

    Meta-analysis doi:10.1002/14651858.cd008225.pub2 PubMed 22336837 Entry in Sources

    A Cochrane review of 13 trials (1,078 participants) found that behavioral and cognitive-behavioral group-based parenting programs significantly reduced conduct problems in children aged 3 to 12, whether rated by parents (SMD -0.53) or independently assessed (SMD -0.44), and also improved parents’ mental health and positive parenting skills.

    Cited on: The best-proven approach, Physical discipline

  9. Gardner, F., Leijten, P., Melendez-Torres, G. J., Landau, S., Harris, V., Mann, J., Beecham, J., Hutchings, J., & Scott, S. (2019). The earlier the better? Individual participant data and traditional meta-analysis of age effects of parenting interventions. Child Development, 90(1), 7-19.

    Meta-analysis doi:10.1111/cdev.13138 PubMed 30216433 Entry in Sources

    Two meta-analyses, one of individual data from 13 European Incredible Years trials (1,696 children aged 2 to 11) and one of 156 trials of parenting programs (13,378 children), found no evidence that starting earlier in childhood made parenting programs more effective for disruptive behavior.

    Cited on: By age: School age (7-10 years), By age: Preteens (10-12 years), The best-proven approach, Printables: One-page summary (7-10 years), Discipline by age

  10. Guo, M., Morawska, A., & Sanders, M. R. (2016). A randomized controlled trial of Group Triple P with Chinese parents in Mainland China. Behavior Modification, 40(6), 825-851.

    Randomized trial doi:10.1177/0145445516644221 PubMed 27091951 Entry in Sources

    In a randomized trial with 81 Chinese parents in Shanghai, parents who took Group Triple P reported fewer child adjustment problems, better parenting practices, better parental adjustment and more confidence as parents than a wait-list group, plus more satisfaction with their children’s academic achievement and fewer academic problem behaviors, with all effects maintained at 6-month follow-up.

    Cited on: The best-proven approach, Physical discipline

  11. Kaminski, J. W., Valle, L. A., Filene, J. H., & Boyle, C. L. (2008). A Meta-analytic Review of Components Associated with Parent Training Program Effectiveness. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36(4), 567-589.

    Meta-analysis doi:10.1007/s10802-007-9201-9 PubMed 18205039 Entry in Sources

    Across 77 published evaluations of parent training programs for children aged 0 to 7, programs that taught positive parent-child interaction and emotional communication, time-out and parenting consistency, and that had parents practice new skills with their child during sessions had larger effects.

    Cited on: By age: Toddlers (1-3 years), By age: Preschoolers (3-5 years), By age: Starting school (5-7 years), The best-proven approach, Toolbox, Situations, When you have little time, Physical discipline, Printables: One-page summary (3-5 years), Printables: One-page summary (5-7 years)

  12. Kazdin, A. E., Siegel, T. C., & Bass, D. (1992). Cognitive problem-solving skills training and parent management training in the treatment of antisocial behavior in children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 60(5), 733-747.

    Randomized trial doi:10.1037/0022-006x.60.5.733 Entry in Sources

    In a randomized trial with 97 children aged 7 to 13 referred for severe antisocial behavior, problem-solving skills training and parent management training each improved child functioning, and combining them produced larger changes in child and parent functioning at posttreatment and 1-year follow-up.

    Cited on: By age: School age (7-10 years), By age: Preteens (10-12 years), Toolbox

  13. Kirby, J. N., & Sanders, M. R. (2014). A randomized controlled trial evaluating a parenting program designed specifically for grandparents. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 52, 35-44.

    Randomized trial doi:10.1016/j.brat.2013.11.002 PubMed 24309085 Entry in Sources

    In a randomized controlled trial with 54 grandparents caring for grandchildren aged 2 to 9, Grandparent Triple P significantly improved grandparent-reported child behavior problems, parenting confidence, grandparent depression, anxiety and stress, and the grandparent-parent relationship in the short term; parents, who did not take part, also reported fewer child behavior problems, and effects were mostly maintained at six months.

    Cited on: The best-proven approach, Situations

  14. Landry, S. H., Smith, K. E., & Swank, P. R. (2006). Responsive parenting: Establishing early foundations for social, communication, and independent problem-solving skills. Developmental Psychology, 42(4), 627-642.

    Randomized trial doi:10.1037/0012-1649.42.4.627 PubMed 16802896 Entry in Sources

    In a randomized trial with mothers of 120 term and 144 very low birth weight infants, a 10-home-visit program teaching responsive behaviors increased mothers’ responsiveness more than a comparison program across assessments from 6 to 13 months, and the increased responsiveness facilitated greater growth in infants’ social, emotional, communication and cognitive competence.

    Cited on: By age: Babies (0-12 months), Toolbox, Learning: Babies (0-12 months), Printables: One-page summary (0-12 months), Encouraging learning

  15. Leijten, P., et al. (2018). Are Relationship Enhancement and Behavior Management “The Golden Couple” for Disruptive Child Behavior? Two Meta-analyses. Child Development, 89(6).

    Meta-analysis doi:10.1111/cdev.13051 PubMed 29557553 Entry in Sources

    Two meta-analyses of randomized trials found that combining relationship enhancement with behavior management was not better overall than behavior management alone: it was better in treatment settings, worse in prevention settings, and no different up to 3 years later.

    Cited on: The best-proven approach, Toolbox

  16. Leijten, P., Gardner, F., Melendez-Torres, G. J., et al. (2019). Meta-Analyses: Key Parenting Program Components for Disruptive Child Behavior. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 58(2), 180-190.

    Meta-analysis doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2018.07.900 PubMed 30738545 Entry in Sources

    Two meta-analyses of randomized parenting program trials found that only three of 26 parenting techniques were linked to stronger effects on disruptive child behavior: positive reinforcement, praise in particular, and natural/logical consequences.

    Cited on: By age: Toddlers (1-3 years), By age: Preschoolers (3-5 years), By age: Starting school (5-7 years), The best-proven approach, Toolbox, Situations, When you have little time, Printables: One-page summary (1-3 years), Printables: One-page summary (3-5 years), Printables: One-page summary (5-7 years)

  17. Leung, C., Sanders, M. R., Leung, S., Mak, R., & Lau, J. (2003). An outcome evaluation of the implementation of the Triple P-Positive Parenting Program in Hong Kong. Family Process, 42(4), 531-544.

    Randomized trial doi:10.1111/j.1545-5300.2003.00531.x PubMed 14979223 Entry in Sources

    In a randomized trial with 91 Hong Kong Chinese parents of 3- to 7-year-olds with early conduct problems, parents who took Triple P reported fewer child behavior problems, less dysfunctional parenting and a greater sense of competence than wait-list parents.

    Cited on: By age: Preschoolers (3-5 years), The best-proven approach, Physical discipline

  18. Leung, C., Tsang, S., Heung, K., & Yiu, I. (2009). Effectiveness of Parent-Child Interaction Therapy (PCIT) among Chinese families. Research on Social Work Practice, 19(3), 304-313.

    Experiment doi:10.1177/1049731508321713 Entry in Sources

    In Hong Kong, Chinese parents of children with significant behavior problems who received PCIT (48 families) reported fewer child behavior problems and less parenting stress afterwards than a comparison group (62 families); observations showed fewer inappropriate child-management strategies and more positive parenting, generally maintained 3 to 6 months later.

    Cited on: The best-proven approach

  19. Leung, C., Tsang, S., Ng, G. S. H., & Choi, S. Y. (2017). Efficacy of Parent-Child Interaction Therapy with Chinese ADHD children: Randomized controlled trial. Research on Social Work Practice, 27(1), 36-47.

    Randomized trial doi:10.1177/1049731516643837 Entry in Sources

    In a randomized trial with 64 Chinese children with ADHD or ADHD features, families offered PCIT showed significant decreases in child behavior and attention problems, parental stress and negative parenting, and an increase in positive parenting, compared with a wait-list group.

    Cited on: The best-proven approach

  20. Lundahl, B., Risser, H. J., & Lovejoy, M. C. (2006). A meta-analysis of parent training: Moderators and follow-up effects. Clinical Psychology Review, 26(1), 86-104.

    Meta-analysis doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2005.07.004 PubMed 16280191 Entry in Sources

    A meta-analysis of 63 peer-reviewed studies found small to moderate effects of parent training on disruptive child behavior and on parents’ behavior and perceptions right after treatment, and small effects at follow-up for behavioral programs; parent training worked least well for economically disadvantaged families, who benefited significantly more from individual than from group delivery.

    Cited on: The best-proven approach

  21. Menting, A. T. A., Orobio de Castro, B., & Matthys, W. (2013). Effectiveness of the Incredible Years parent training to modify disruptive and prosocial child behavior: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 33(8), 901-913.

    Meta-analysis doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2013.07.006 PubMed 23994367 Entry in Sources

    A meta-analysis of 50 studies found that Incredible Years parent training reduced disruptive child behavior (d = .27 across informants), with larger effects in treatment studies and for children with more severe problems.

    Cited on: The best-proven approach

  22. Michelson, D., Davenport, C., Dretzke, J., Barlow, J., & Day, C. (2013). Do Evidence-Based Interventions Work When Tested in the “Real World?” A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Parent Management Training for the Treatment of Child Disruptive Behavior. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 16(1), 18-34.

    Meta-analysis doi:10.1007/s10567-013-0128-0 PubMed 23420407 Entry in Sources

    A meta-analysis of 28 randomized controlled trials found a significant overall advantage for parent management training (PMT) over waitlist control for child disruptive behavior, with no clear evidence that delivering it under real-world conditions (non-specialist therapists, clinic-referred children, routine settings and services) reduced its effect.

    Cited on: The best-proven approach

  23. Mingebach, T., Kamp-Becker, I., Christiansen, H., & Weber, L. (2018). Meta-meta-analysis on the effectiveness of parent-based interventions for the treatment of child externalizing behavior problems. PLOS ONE, 13(9), e0202855.

    Meta-analysis doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0202855 PubMed 30256794 Entry in Sources

    A meta-meta-analysis of 26 meta-analyses of parent-based interventions for children under 13 with externalizing behavior problems in clinical settings found a moderate overall effect on child behavior (SMD = 0.46) that remained stable at follow-up.

    Cited on: The best-proven approach

  24. Postorino, V., Sharp, W. G., McCracken, C. E., Bearss, K., Burrell, T. L., Evans, A. N., & Scahill, L. (2017). A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Parent Training for Disruptive Behavior in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 20(4), 391-402.

    Meta-analysis doi:10.1007/s10567-017-0237-2 PubMed 28600643 Entry in Sources

    A systematic review and meta-analysis of eight randomized controlled trials with 653 participants found that parent training reduced disruptive behavior in children with autism spectrum disorder (SMD -0.59), with significant heterogeneity across studies.

    Cited on: The best-proven approach

  25. Reyno, S. M., & McGrath, P. J. (2005). Predictors of parent training efficacy for child externalizing behavior problems - a meta-analytic review. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47(1), 99-111.

    Meta-analysis doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2005.01544.x PubMed 16405646 Entry in Sources

    A meta-analytic review of parent training studies for child externalizing problems published from 1980 to 2004 found that low family income was the only predictor of treatment response with a large effect size, while low education or occupation, more severe pretreatment child problems and maternal psychopathology had moderate effect sizes.

    Cited on: The best-proven approach

  26. Rimestad, M. L., Lambek, R., Zacher Christiansen, H., & Hougaard, E. (2016). Short- and Long-Term Effects of Parent Training for Preschool Children With or at Risk of ADHD: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Journal of Attention Disorders, 23(5), 423-434.

    Meta-analysis doi:10.1177/1087054716648775 PubMed 27179355 Entry in Sources

    A meta-analysis of 16 studies with 1,003 children aged 2.5 to 6 with ADHD or ADHD symptoms found moderate parent-rated effects of parent training on ADHD symptoms (g = 0.51), conduct problems (g = 0.4) and negative parenting (g = 0.63), sustained at follow-ups of 3 to 12 months, but on independent assessment only negative parenting improved significantly.

    Cited on: The best-proven approach

  27. Sanders, M. R., Kirby, J. N., Tellegen, C. L., & Day, J. J. (2014). The Triple P-Positive Parenting Program: A systematic review and meta-analysis of a multi-level system of parenting support. Clinical Psychology Review, 34(4), 337-357.

    Meta-analysis doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2014.04.003 PubMed 24842549 Entry in Sources

    A meta-analysis of 101 studies with 16,099 families found significant short- and long-term effects of the Triple P system on child and parent outcomes, including a short-term effect of d = 0.473 on children’s social, emotional and behavioral outcomes.

    Cited on: The best-proven approach

  28. Thomas, R., Abell, B., Webb, H. J., Avdagic, E., & Zimmer-Gembeck, M. J. (2017). Parent-Child Interaction Therapy: A Meta-analysis. Pediatrics, 140(3), e20170352.

    Meta-analysis doi:10.1542/peds.2017-0352 PubMed 28860132 Entry in Sources

    A meta-analysis of 23 studies (1,144 participants) found that Parent-Child Interaction Therapy (PCIT) reduced child externalizing behavior more than control conditions (SMD -0.87), with greater reductions in studies that required skill mastery (SMD -1.09) than in those that did not (SMD -0.51).

    Cited on: The best-proven approach

Discipline techniques

  1. Bean, A. W., & Roberts, M. W. (1981). The effect of time-out release contingencies on changes in child noncompliance. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 9(1), 95-105.

    Experiment doi:10.1007/bf00917860 PubMed 7217541 Entry in Sources

    In a study of 24 noncompliant, clinic-referred preschoolers, time-out for noncompliance increased compliance both with parent-controlled release (time and behavior requirements, backed by a spanking procedure for premature escape) and with child release (no such requirements), but the gains under child release were judged clinically insignificant.

    Cited on: When you have little time

  2. Dadds, M. R., & Tully, L. A. (2019). What is it to discipline a child: What should it be? A reanalysis of time-out from the perspective of child mental health, attachment, and trauma. American Psychologist, 74(7), 794-808.

    Review doi:10.1037/amp0000449 PubMed 30802080 Entry in Sources

    This reanalysis answers attachment-based criticism of time-out and argues that time-out used in line with current models of learning, attachment, self-regulation and family systems can quickly remedy children’s problems and generally enhances child well-being.

    Cited on: By age: Preschoolers (3-5 years), The best-proven approach, Toolbox, When you have little time

  3. Day, D. E., & Roberts, M. W. (1983). An analysis of the physical punishment component of a parent training program. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 11(1), 141-152.

    Experiment doi:10.1007/bf00912184 PubMed 6853876 Entry in Sources

    In a clinic analog study of 16 noncompliant, clinic-referred preschoolers, a no-spank “barrier” procedure and spanking, used when children escaped from time-out, were equally effective at increasing compliance, so physical punishment did not appear to be a critical component; the authors concluded that enforcing a minimum time-out duration is critical for compliance in that setting.

    Cited on: By age: Preschoolers (3-5 years), The best-proven approach, Toolbox, When you have little time, Physical discipline

  4. Donaldson, J. M., & Vollmer, T. R. (2011). An Evaluation and Comparison of Time-Out Procedures With and Without Release Contingencies. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 44(4), 693-705.

    Experiment doi:10.1901/jaba.2011.44-693 PubMed 22219523 Entry in Sources

    In a study of four 3- and 4-year-olds, a fixed-duration time-out and a time-out with a release contingency (the child could not leave until there had been no problem behavior for a set time) were both effective at reducing problem behavior outside time-out, and problem behavior during time-out did not predict problem behavior outside it.

    Cited on: By age: Preschoolers (3-5 years), The best-proven approach, Toolbox, When you have little time

  5. Donaldson, J. M., Vollmer, T. R., Yakich, T. M., & Van Camp, C. (2013). Effects of a Reduced Time-Out Interval on Compliance With the Time-Out Instruction: Compliance With Time-Out. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 46(2), 369-378.

    Experiment doi:10.1002/jaba.40 PubMed 24114153 Entry in Sources

    In a study of six preschool-aged boys, time-out reduced problem behavior for all six, and shortening the time-out interval when a boy complied with the instruction to go to time-out increased compliance with that instruction for four of the six.

    Cited on: The best-proven approach, Toolbox, When you have little time

  6. Everett, G. E., Hupp, S. D. A., & Olmi, D. J. (2010). Time-out with parents: A descriptive analysis of 30 years of research. Education and Treatment of Children, 33(2), 235-259.

    Review doi:10.1353/etc.0.0091 Entry in Sources

    A review of 40 articles published from 1977 to 2007 on parents’ use of time-out found it widely used as a behavior management strategy, but the way it was carried out varied widely across studies and often could not be determined.

    Cited on: Toolbox, When you have little time

  7. Gershoff, E. T., Grogan-Kaylor, A., Lansford, J. E., Chang, L., Zelli, A., Deater-Deckard, K., & Dodge, K. A. (2010). Parent Discipline Practices in an International Sample: Associations With Child Behaviors and Moderation by Perceived Normativeness. Child Development, 81(2), 487-502.

    Cross-sectional study doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01409.x PubMed 20438455 Entry in Sources

    Among 292 mothers and their children aged 8-12 in China, India, Italy, Kenya, the Philippines and Thailand, mothers’ use of corporal punishment, expressing disappointment and yelling were significantly related to more child aggression symptoms, while giving a time-out, corporal punishment, expressing disappointment and shaming were significantly related to more child anxiety symptoms, with some moderation by children’s perceptions of how normal the techniques were.

    Cited on: By age: School age (7-10 years), By age: Preteens (10-12 years), Toolbox, When you have little time, Physical discipline, Printables: One-page summary (7-10 years)

  8. Greene, R. W., Ablon, J. S., Goring, J. C., Raezer-Blakely, L., Markey, J., Monuteaux, M. C., Henin, A., Edwards, G., & Rabbitt, S. (2004). Effectiveness of Collaborative Problem Solving in Affectively Dysregulated Children With Oppositional-Defiant Disorder: Initial Findings. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72(6), 1157-1164.

    Experiment doi:10.1037/0022-006x.72.6.1157 PubMed 15612861 Entry in Sources

    In 47 children with oppositional defiant disorder and affective (emotional) dysregulation, collaborative problem solving (CPS) produced significant improvements across multiple areas of functioning after treatment and at 4-month follow-up, and these improvements were in all instances equivalent, and in many instances superior, to those produced by parent training.

    Cited on: Toolbox

  9. Holden, G. W., Gower, T., Wee, S. E., Gaspar, R., & Ashraf, R. (2022). Is It Time for “Time-In”?: A Pilot Test of the Child-Rearing Technique. Pediatric Reports, 14(2), 244-253.

    Pilot study doi:10.3390/pediatric14020032 PubMed 35645369 Entry in Sources

    In a small pilot study, mothers of 3- to 5-year-olds who received brief training used time-in over two weeks and rated it easy to use and effective; the authors note there are few empirical studies of the technique.

    Cited on: By age: Toddlers (1-3 years), By age: Preschoolers (3-5 years), Toolbox

  10. Kamins, M. L., & Dweck, C. S. (1999). Person versus process praise and criticism: Implications for contingent self-worth and coping. Developmental Psychology, 35(3), 835-847.

    Experiment doi:10.1037/0012-1649.35.3.835 Entry in Sources

    In two role-play studies with 5- and 6-year-olds, children who received person feedback (praise or criticism of themselves or their traits) showed significantly more helpless responses after a later setback, including self-blame, than children who received process feedback.

    Cited on: By age: Starting school (5-7 years), Toolbox, Learning: Preschoolers (3-5 years), Learning: Starting school (5-7 years), Printables: One-page summary (5-7 years), Encouraging learning

  11. Knight, R. M., Albright, J., Deling, L., Dore-Stites, D., & Drayton, A. K. (2020). Longitudinal Relationship Between Time-Out and Child Emotional and Behavioral Functioning. Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics, 41(1), 31-37.

    Longitudinal study doi:10.1097/dbp.0000000000000725 PubMed 31513092 Entry in Sources

    In Early Head Start Research and Evaluation study data that followed families from child age 0-3 to fifth grade, children whose parents reported using time-out at 36 months did not differ significantly from other children on any emotional, behavioral or parent-child relationship outcome.

    Cited on: By age: Preschoolers (3-5 years), The best-proven approach, Toolbox, When you have little time

  12. Leijten, P., Gardner, F., Melendez-Torres, G. J., Knerr, W., & Overbeek, G. (2018). Parenting behaviors that shape child compliance: A multilevel meta-analysis. PLOS ONE, 13(10), e0204929.

    Meta-analysis doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0204929 PubMed 30289928 Entry in Sources

    A multilevel meta-analysis of 19 studies that experimentally manipulated single parenting behaviors found that time-out for noncompliance (ds = 0.84-1.72) and briefly ignoring the child after noncompliance (ds = 0.36-1.77) robustly increased child compliance, verbal reprimands did so only when observed and parent-reported outcomes were combined (d = 0.72), and praise did not increase compliance.

    Cited on: By age: Preschoolers (3-5 years), The best-proven approach, Toolbox, Situations, When you have little time, Physical discipline, Printables: One-page summary (3-5 years)

  13. Leijten, P., Thomaes, S., Orobio de Castro, B., Dishion, T. J., & Matthys, W. (2016). What good is labeling what’s good? A field experimental investigation of parental labeled praise and child compliance. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 87, 134-141.

    Experiment doi:10.1016/j.brat.2016.09.008 PubMed 27665415 Entry in Sources

    In two experiments with children aged 3 to 9, labeled praise (naming the behavior) showed no advantage over unlabeled praise: only unlabeled praise increased immediate compliance in the first experiment, and in the second, two weeks of labeled praise reduced disruptive behavior about as much as unlabeled praise did.

    Cited on: By age: Preschoolers (3-5 years), By age: Starting school (5-7 years), The best-proven approach, Toolbox

  14. Mace, F. C., Page, T. J., Ivancic, M. T., & O’Brien, S. (1986). Effectiveness of brief time-out with and without contingent delay: A comparative analysis. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 19(1), 79-86.

    Experiment doi:10.1901/jaba.1986.19-79 PubMed 3710950 Entry in Sources

    In a small study of three children (one typically developing, two with intellectual disabilities), brief time-out reduced aggression and disruption both when release was delayed until disruption during time-out stopped and when it was not.

    Cited on: The best-proven approach, Toolbox, Situations, When you have little time

  15. Morawska, A., & Sanders, M. R. (2011). Parental Use of Time Out Revisited: A Useful or Harmful Parenting Strategy?. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 20, 1-8.

    Review doi:10.1007/s10826-010-9371-x Entry in Sources

    This review weighs the criticisms of time-out and concludes that its judicious use within parent training programs is justified and beneficial for many children with conduct problems, while setting out what affects its effectiveness and when it should not be used.

    Cited on: The best-proven approach, Toolbox, When you have little time

  16. Ollendick, T. H., Greene, R. W., Austin, K. E., Fraire, M. G., Halldorsdottir, T., Allen, K. B., Jarrett, M. A., Lewis, K. M., Whitmore Smith, M., Cunningham, N. R., Noguchi, R. J. P., Canavera, K., & Wolff, J. C. (2015). Parent Management Training and Collaborative & Proactive Solutions: A Randomized Control Trial for Oppositional Youth. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 45(5), 591-604.

    Randomized trial doi:10.1080/15374416.2015.1004681 PubMed 25751000 Entry in Sources

    In a randomized trial of 134 youth aged 7-14 with oppositional defiant disorder (ODD), Collaborative & Proactive Solutions (CPS) and Parent Management Training (PMT) both outperformed a waitlist and did not differ from each other: about 50% of youth in each treatment were diagnosis free and much or very much improved after treatment (0% on the waitlist), and gains held at the 6-month follow-up.

    Cited on: By age: School age (7-10 years), By age: Preteens (10-12 years), The best-proven approach, Toolbox, Situations, Printables: One-page summary (7-10 years), Printables: One-page summary (10-12 years)

  17. Owen, D. J., Slep, A. M. S., & Heyman, R. E. (2012). The Effect of Praise, Positive Nonverbal Response, Reprimand, and Negative Nonverbal Response on Child Compliance: A Systematic Review. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 15(4), 364-385.

    Systematic review doi:10.1007/s10567-012-0120-0 PubMed 22918669 Entry in Sources

    A systematic review of 41 studies of children aged 1.5 to 11 found that reprimands and negative nonverbal responses consistently increased compliance, while praise and positive nonverbal responses had mixed effects.

    Cited on: By age: Toddlers (1-3 years), The best-proven approach, Toolbox, Situations

  18. Patall, E. A., Cooper, H., & Robinson, J. C. (2008). The effects of choice on intrinsic motivation and related outcomes: A meta-analysis of research findings. Psychological Bulletin, 134(2), 270-300.

    Meta-analysis doi:10.1037/0033-2909.134.2.270 PubMed 18298272 Entry in Sources

    A meta-analysis of 41 studies with child and adult samples found that providing choice enhanced intrinsic motivation, effort, task performance and perceived competence, and that the effect on intrinsic motivation was stronger for children than for adults, when 2 to 4 successive choices were given, and when no rewards were given after the choice.

    Cited on: By age: Toddlers (1-3 years), By age: School age (7-10 years), Toolbox, Learning: Toddlers (1-3 years), Learning: Preschoolers (3-5 years), Learning: Starting school (5-7 years), Learning: School age (7-10 years), Learning: Preteens (10-12 years), Printables: One-page summary (1-3 years), Printables: Learning at home one-pager (1-3 years), Printables: Learning at home one-pager (3-5 years), Printables: One-page summary (7-10 years), Encouraging learning

  19. Radley, K. C., & Dart, E. H. (2016). Antecedent Strategies to Promote Children’s and Adolescents’ Compliance with Adult Requests: A Review of the Literature. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 19, 39-54.

    Review doi:10.1007/s10567-015-0197-3 Entry in Sources

    A review of 42 studies of eight antecedent strategies for children and adolescents aged 1 to 19 concluded that high-probability command sequences, effective instruction delivery and errorless compliance training may be considered evidence-based ways to increase compliance with adult requests.

    Cited on: By age: Preschoolers (3-5 years), The best-proven approach, Toolbox, Situations, Printables: One-page summary (3-5 years)

  20. Reynolds, L. K., & Kelley, M. L. (1997). The efficacy of a response cost-based treatment package for managing aggressive behavior in preschoolers. Behavior Modification, 21(2), 216-230.

    Experiment doi:10.1177/01454455970212005 PubMed 9086867 Entry in Sources

    In a small classroom study of four aggressive preschoolers, a response cost system (teachers removed a smiley face, with a reprimand, after each aggressive act, and children who kept at least one face chose a reward) substantially decreased aggressive behavior and was highly acceptable to teachers and parents.

    Cited on: The best-proven approach, Toolbox, Situations, When you have little time

  21. Siddiqui, A., & Ross, H. (2004). Mediation as a Method of Parent Intervention in Children’s Disputes. Journal of Family Psychology, 18(1), 147-159.

    Experiment doi:10.1037/0893-3200.18.1.147 PubMed 14992617 Entry in Sources

    Mothers of 5- to 8-year-olds who were trained to mediate their children’s disputes were able to use mediation, which both mothers and children favored; compared with control families, children reasoned, discussed emotions and showed understanding of motivations more often, and mediation empowered children, especially younger siblings, to solve conflicts.

    Cited on: By age: Starting school (5-7 years), The best-proven approach, Toolbox, Situations, Printables: One-page summary (5-7 years)

  22. Tronick, E. Z. (1989). Emotions and emotional communication in infants. American Psychologist, 44(2), 112-119.

    Review doi:10.1037/0003-066x.44.2.112 Entry in Sources

    This review describes infants and caregivers as mutually regulating their interactions through emotional expressions, and suggests that positive development is associated with coordinated interactions in which mismatches are frequently repaired, while sustained interactive failure and negative affect are associated with negative development.

    Cited on: By age: Babies (0-12 months), Toolbox, Physical discipline, Learning: Babies (0-12 months), Printables: One-page summary (0-12 months), Printables: Learning at home one-pager (0-12 months)

  23. White, G. D., Nielsen, G., & Johnson, S. M. (1972). Timeout Duration and the Suppression of Deviant Behavior in Children. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 5(2), 111-120.

    Experiment doi:10.1901/jaba.1972.5-111 PubMed 16795328 Entry in Sources

    In 20 institutionalized residents with intellectual disabilities, time-out in an isolation room significantly reduced deviant behavior such as aggression, tantrums and self-injury; on average, 15 and 30 minutes produced a 35% decrease with little difference between them, while 1 minute was most effective when it came before the longer durations and less reliable when it came later.

    Cited on: When you have little time

Physical punishment and harsh discipline

  1. Baumrind, D., Larzelere, R. E., & Cowan, P. A. (2002). Ordinary physical punishment: Is it harmful? Comment on Gershoff (2002). Psychological Bulletin, 128(4), 580-589.

    Review doi:10.1037/0033-2909.128.4.580 PubMed 12081082 Entry in Sources

    In a comment on Gershoff (2002), Baumrind, Larzelere and Cowan argue that biases and confounds in her meta-analyses further limit causal conclusions about the detrimental “effects” of corporal punishment, suggest that it is linked to undesirable child outcomes because it marks inept, harsh parenting, and conclude that, although the harm of physical abuse and other extreme punishments is clear, the evidence Gershoff presented does not justify a blanket injunction against spanking.

    Cited on: By age: Starting school (5-7 years), Physical discipline

  2. Ferguson, C. J. (2013). Spanking, corporal punishment and negative long-term outcomes: A meta-analytic review of longitudinal studies. Clinical Psychology Review, 33(1), 196-208.

    Meta-analysis doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2012.11.002 PubMed 23274727 Entry in Sources

    This meta-analysis of longitudinal studies found small but non-trivial simple correlations between spanking or corporal punishment and later externalizing problems, internalizing problems and lower cognitive performance, but once children’s earlier levels of each outcome were controlled, links with externalizing and internalizing problems were statistically significant but trivial (partial r of .07 to .10) and the link with cognitive performance was near the threshold of trivial (-.11, corporal punishment only), and the author concludes the impact is minimal.

    Cited on: Physical discipline

  3. Gershoff, E. T. (2002). Corporal punishment by parents and associated child behaviors and experiences: A meta-analytic and theoretical review. Psychological Bulletin, 128(4), 539-579.

    Meta-analysis doi:10.1037/0033-2909.128.4.539 PubMed 12081081 Entry in Sources

    Meta-analyses of the association between parental corporal punishment and 11 child behaviors and experiences found it was associated with all of them, including higher levels of immediate compliance and aggression and lower levels of moral internalization and mental health.

    Cited on: By age: Preschoolers (3-5 years), By age: Starting school (5-7 years), Situations, When you have little time, Physical discipline, Printables: One-page summary (5-7 years)

  4. Gershoff, E. T., & Grogan-Kaylor, A. (2016). Spanking and child outcomes: Old controversies and new meta-analyses. Journal of Family Psychology, 30(4), 453-469.

    Meta-analysis doi:10.1037/fam0000191 PubMed 27055181 Entry in Sources

    Meta-analyses focused specifically on spanking, covering 111 unique effect sizes representing 160,927 children, found that 13 of 17 mean effect sizes were significantly different from zero, all indicating a link between spanking and increased risk of detrimental child outcomes, and that effect sizes did not substantially differ between spanking and physical abuse or by study design.

    Cited on: When you have little time, Physical discipline

  5. Gershoff, E. T., Goodman, G. S., Miller-Perrin, C. L., Holden, G. W., Jackson, Y., & Kazdin, A. E. (2018). The strength of the causal evidence against physical punishment of children and its implications for parents, psychologists, and policymakers. American Psychologist, 73(5), 626-638.

    Review doi:10.1037/amp0000327 PubMed 29999352 Entry in Sources

    Summarizing how far research on physical punishment meets accepted criteria for causal inference, the authors review research showing that physical punishment is linked with the same harms to children as physical abuse and that its links with detrimental outcomes are consistent across cultural, family and neighborhood contexts, and on that basis recommend that parents avoid physical punishment, psychologists advise and advocate against it, and policymakers develop ways to educate the public about its harms and alternatives.

    Cited on: Physical discipline

  6. Heilmann, A., Mehay, A., Watt, R. G., Kelly, Y., Durrant, J. E., van Turnhout, J., & Gershoff, E. T. (2021). Physical punishment and child outcomes: a narrative review of prospective studies. The Lancet, 398(10297), 355-364.

    Review doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(21)00582-1 PubMed 34197808 Entry in Sources

    This narrative review of 69 prospective longitudinal studies found that physical punishment consistently predicted increases in child behavior problems over time, was not associated with positive outcomes over time, increased the risk of involvement with child protective services and predicted worsening behavior in quasi-experimental studies, with associations robust across child and parent characteristics and some evidence of a dose-response relationship.

    Cited on: When you have little time, Physical discipline

  7. Lansford, J. E., Chang, L., Dodge, K. A., Malone, P. S., Oburu, P., Palmérus, K., Bacchini, D., Pastorelli, C., Bombi, A. S., Zelli, A., Tapanya, S., Chaudhary, N., Deater-Deckard, K., Manke, B., & Quinn, N. (2005). Physical Discipline and Children’s Adjustment: Cultural Normativeness as a Moderator. Child Development, 76(6), 1234-1246.

    Cross-sectional study doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2005.00847.x PubMed 16274437 Entry in Sources

    In interviews with 336 mother-child pairs in China, India, Italy, Kenya, the Philippines and Thailand (children aged 6-17), physical discipline was less strongly linked to adverse child outcomes where it was perceived as more normal, but it was linked to more adverse outcomes regardless of perceived normativeness, and in all countries higher use was associated with more aggression and anxiety.

    Cited on: By age: School age (7-10 years), By age: Preteens (10-12 years), Physical discipline, Printables: One-page summary (7-10 years)

  8. Larzelere, R. E. (2000). Child outcomes of nonabusive and customary physical punishment by parents: An updated literature review. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 3(4), 199-221.

    Review doi:10.1023/a:1026473020315 PubMed 11225737 Entry in Sources

    This review by a leading proponent reports that all six clinical-sample studies and all three sequential-analysis studies found beneficial outcomes, such as less noncompliance and fighting, mainly when nonabusive spanking backed up milder discipline with 2- to 6-year-olds, while five of eight controlled longitudinal studies found mainly detrimental outcomes, which the author attributes chiefly to overly frequent use and to residual confounding.

    Cited on: By age: Babies (0-12 months), When you have little time, Physical discipline

  9. Larzelere, R. E., & Kuhn, B. R. (2005). Comparing Child Outcomes of Physical Punishment and Alternative Disciplinary Tactics: A Meta-Analysis. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 8(1), 1-37.

    Meta-analysis doi:10.1007/s10567-005-2340-z PubMed 15898303 Entry in Sources

    In their meta-analysis of 26 studies comparing physical punishment with alternative discipline tactics, Larzelere and Kuhn report that effect sizes significantly favored what they call conditional spanking over 10 of 13 alternative tactics for reducing child noncompliance or antisocial behavior, that customary physical punishment yielded effect sizes equal to the alternatives except in one large study favoring physical punishment, and that only overly severe or predominant use of physical punishment compared unfavorably with the alternatives.

    Cited on: By age: Preschoolers (3-5 years), Physical discipline

  10. Larzelere, R. E., Cox, R. B., & Smith, G. L. (2010). Do nonphysical punishments reduce antisocial behavior more than spanking? a comparison using the strongest previous causal evidence against spanking. BMC Pediatrics, 10(1), 10.

    Longitudinal study doi:10.1186/1471-2431-10-10 PubMed 20175902 Entry in Sources

    Re-analyzing data on 785 children aged 6-9 from the 1988 cohort of the US National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, Larzelere and colleagues replicated an apparently adverse effect of spanking on antisocial behavior when using the original study’s three-category measure of initial antisocial behavior, found a similar pattern of adverse effects for grounding and psychotherapy and partially for privilege removal and sending children to their room, and found that all of these effects became non-significant after controlling for comprehensive measures of earlier externalizing problems, which they interpret as consistent with residual confounding.

    Cited on: Physical discipline

  11. Larzelere, R. E., Gunnoe, M. L., Pritsker, J., & Ferguson, C. J. (2024). Resolving the Contradictory Conclusions from Three Reviews of Controlled Longitudinal Studies of Physical Punishment: A Meta-Analysis. Marriage & Family Review, 60(7), 395-433.

    Meta-analysis doi:10.1080/01494929.2024.2392672 Entry in Sources

    A meta-analysis of controlled longitudinal studies found that customary spanking explained less than 1% of the remaining variance in each child outcome after controlling for earlier adjustment; the authors attribute harmful-looking results to residual confounding and, pointing to large effects of spanking used to enforce time-out in clinic programs for defiant young children, discourage blanket anti-spanking injunctions.

    Cited on: By age: Toddlers (1-3 years), By age: School age (7-10 years), By age: Preteens (10-12 years), Situations, When you have little time, Physical discipline

  12. Lee, S. J., Grogan-Kaylor, A., & Berger, L. M. (2014). Parental spanking of 1-year-old children and subsequent child protective services involvement. Child Abuse & Neglect, 38(5), 875-883.

    Longitudinal study doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2014.01.018 PubMed 24602690 Entry in Sources

    In a prospective study of 2,788 urban families, 30% of 1-year-olds had been spanked at least once in the past month, and spanking at age 1 was associated with higher odds of household involvement with child protective services between ages 1 and 5 (adjusted odds ratio 1.36), a 33% greater probability than for children who were not spanked.

    Cited on: By age: Babies (0-12 months), By age: Toddlers (1-3 years), Physical discipline

  13. Sege, R. D., Siegel, B. S., Council on Child Abuse and Neglect, & Committee on Psychosocial Aspects of Child and Family Health (2018). Effective Discipline to Raise Healthy Children. Pediatrics, 142(6), e20183112.

    Position statement doi:10.1542/peds.2018-3112 PubMed 30397164 Entry in Sources

    The American Academy of Pediatrics advises parents and other adults not to use any corporal punishment, including hitting and spanking, or verbal abuse such as threatening, insulting, humiliating or shaming, stating that such aversive strategies are minimally effective in the short term and not effective in the long term.

    Cited on: By age: Babies (0-12 months), By age: Toddlers (1-3 years), By age: Preschoolers (3-5 years), By age: Starting school (5-7 years), By age: School age (7-10 years), By age: Preteens (10-12 years), Toolbox, Situations, When you have little time, Physical discipline, Printables: One-page summary (0-12 months), Printables: One-page summary (1-3 years), Printables: One-page summary (3-5 years), Printables: One-page summary (5-7 years)

  14. Wang, M.-T., & Kenny, S. (2014). Longitudinal Links Between Fathers’ and Mothers’ Harsh Verbal Discipline and Adolescents’ Conduct Problems and Depressive Symptoms. Child Development, 85(3), 908-923.

    Longitudinal study doi:10.1111/cdev.12143 PubMed 24001259 Entry in Sources

    In 976 two-parent families, mothers’ and fathers’ harsh verbal discipline at age 13 predicted increases in adolescents’ conduct problems and depressive symptoms between ages 13 and 14, these links were not moderated by parental warmth, and adolescents’ misconduct at 13 also predicted increases in parents’ harsh verbal discipline.

    Cited on: By age: School age (7-10 years), By age: Preteens (10-12 years), Toolbox, Physical discipline

  15. Zolotor, A. J., Theodore, A. D., Chang, J. J., Berkoff, M. C., & Runyan, D. K. (2008). Speak Softly - and Forget the Stick. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 35(4), 364-369.

    Cross-sectional study doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2008.06.031 PubMed 18779030 Entry in Sources

    In an anonymous telephone survey of a representative sample of mothers in North and South Carolina, mothers who reported that their child was spanked were 2.7 times more likely to report physical abuse, more frequent spanking in the past year was also associated with higher odds of abuse (OR 1.03), and mothers who reported spanking with an object had markedly higher odds of reporting abuse (OR 8.9).

    Cited on: Physical discipline

Development, family and when to get help

  1. Alink, L. R. A., Mesman, J., van Zeijl, J., Stolk, M. N., Juffer, F., Koot, H. M., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2006). The early childhood aggression curve: development of physical aggression in 10- to 50-month-old children. Child Development, 77(4), 954-966.

    Longitudinal study doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2006.00912.x PubMed 16942499 Entry in Sources

    Physical aggression was already present in 12-month-olds but occurred significantly more often in 24- and 36-month-olds, rising during the second year of life and declining from the third birthday onward.

    Cited on: By age: Babies (0-12 months), By age: Toddlers (1-3 years), By age: Preschoolers (3-5 years), The best-proven approach, Toolbox, Situations, Printables: One-page summary (0-12 months), Printables: One-page summary (1-3 years), Printables: One-page summary (3-5 years), About

  2. Barr, R. G., Rivara, F. P., Barr, M., Cummings, P., Taylor, J., Lengua, L. J., & Meredith-Benitz, E. (2009). Effectiveness of Educational Materials Designed to Change Knowledge and Behaviors Regarding Crying and Shaken-Baby Syndrome in Mothers of Newborns: A Randomized, Controlled Trial. Pediatrics, 123(3), 972-980.

    Randomized trial doi:10.1542/peds.2008-0908 PubMed 19255028 Entry in Sources

    In a randomized controlled trial with mothers of newborns (1,374 intervention, 1,364 control), The Period of PURPLE Crying materials led to higher knowledge about infant crying (69.5 versus 63.3) and the dangers of shaking (84.8 versus 83.5) and more sharing of information about walking away if frustrated and the dangers of shaking, while mothers’ reported responses to crying were similar to those of controls.

    Cited on: By age: Babies (0-12 months)

  3. Belden, A. C., Thomson, N. R., & Luby, J. L. (2008). Temper Tantrums in Healthy Versus Depressed and Disruptive Preschoolers: Defining Tantrum Behaviors Associated with Clinical Problems. The Journal of Pediatrics, 152(1), 117-122.

    Cross-sectional study doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2007.06.030 PubMed 18154912 Entry in Sources

    Among 279 preschoolers aged 3 to 6, those with disruptive disorders were violent during tantrums more often than healthy children, had more tantrums at school or daycare and had a harder time recovering, while depressed preschoolers were more aggressive toward objects and people and showed more self-harmful tantrum behaviors than healthy children.

    Cited on: By age: Preschoolers (3-5 years), The best-proven approach, Situations, About

  4. Carskadon, M. A. (2011). Sleep in Adolescents: The Perfect Storm. Pediatric Clinics of North America, 58(3), 637-647.

    Review doi:10.1016/j.pcl.2011.03.003 PubMed 21600346 Entry in Sources

    A review concluding that although sleep amount falls from late childhood through the teenage years, the weight of evidence holds that sleep need does not decline; the sleep lost through adolescence arises from a convergence of biological, psychological and socio-cultural influences, not from a lower need for sleep.

    Cited on: By age: Preteens (10-12 years), Learning: Preteens (10-12 years), Printables: One-page summary (10-12 years)

  5. Côté, S. M., Vaillancourt, T., LeBlanc, J. C., Nagin, D. S., & Tremblay, R. E. (2006). The development of physical aggression from toddlerhood to pre-adolescence: a nation wide longitudinal study of Canadian children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 34(1), 71-85.

    Longitudinal study doi:10.1007/s10802-005-9001-z PubMed 16565888 Entry in Sources

    Following 10,658 Canadian children between ages 2 and 11, most used physical aggression occasionally or infrequently as toddlers and infrequently or almost never by pre-adolescence, while about one in six (16.6%) stayed on a high, stable trajectory.

    Cited on: By age: Toddlers (1-3 years), By age: Preschoolers (3-5 years), The best-proven approach, Situations, About

  6. Diamond, A. (2013). Executive Functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64(1), 135-168.

    Review doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750 PubMed 23020641 Entry in Sources

    A review identifies three core executive functions, inhibition (self-control and interference control), working memory and cognitive flexibility, notes that stress, lack of sleep, loneliness or lack of exercise each impair them, and discusses evidence that they can be trained and improved with practice.

    Cited on: By age: Starting school (5-7 years), Situations, Learning: Toddlers (1-3 years), Learning: Preschoolers (3-5 years), Learning: Starting school (5-7 years), Learning: School age (7-10 years), Learning: Preteens (10-12 years), Printables: One-page summary (5-7 years), Encouraging learning

  7. Dishion, T. J., McCord, J., & Poulin, F. (1999). When interventions harm: Peer groups and problem behavior. American Psychologist, 54(9), 755-764.

    Review doi:10.1037/0003-066x.54.9.755 Entry in Sources

    A review of developmental and intervention evidence: longitudinal research shows that “deviancy training” within adolescent friendships predicts increases in delinquency, substance use and violence, and two experimentally controlled studies found that grouping high-risk young adolescents together in interventions increased their problem behavior compared with controls.

    Cited on: By age: Preteens (10-12 years)

  8. Eccles, J. S., Midgley, C., Wigfield, A., Buchanan, C. M., Reuman, D., Flanagan, C., & Mac Iver, D. (1993). Development during adolescence: The impact of stage-environment fit on young adolescents’ experiences in schools and in families. American Psychologist, 48(2), 90-101.

    Review doi:10.1037/0003-066x.48.2.90 Entry in Sources

    A review advancing the stage-environment fit hypothesis: some of the negative changes seen in early adolescence (in motivation and self-perception) result from a mismatch between adolescents’ developing needs and the opportunities their school and home environments give them, with examples of how the mismatch arises and how more developmentally appropriate environments can be created.

    Cited on: By age: Preteens (10-12 years), Learning: Preteens (10-12 years)

  9. Evans, A. D., & Lee, K. (2011). Verbal deception from late childhood to middle adolescence and its relation to executive functioning skills. Developmental Psychology, 47(4), 1108-1116.

    Experiment doi:10.1037/a0023425 PubMed 21553958 Entry in Sources

    In an experiment with 8- to 16-year-olds left alone with the answers to a test, most peeked; the sophistication of their lies about it, but not the decision to lie, was related to executive functioning skills (working memory, inhibitory control and planning).

    Cited on: By age: Preteens (10-12 years), Situations, Printables: One-page summary (10-12 years)

  10. Evans, A. D., & Lee, K. (2013). Emergence of lying in very young children. Developmental Psychology, 49(10), 1958-1963.

    Cross-sectional study doi:10.1037/a0031409 PubMed 23294150 Entry in Sources

    Among 65 children aged 2-3 who were asked not to peek at a toy, 80% peeked; most 2-year-old peekers confessed, but with increasing age more peekers denied peeking and thus lied, and children’s executive functioning skills significantly predicted their tendency to lie after controlling for age.

    Cited on: By age: Preschoolers (3-5 years), Situations

  11. Fuligni, A. J., & Eccles, J. S. (1993). Perceived parent-child relationships and early adolescents’ orientation toward peers. Developmental Psychology, 29(4), 622-632.

    Longitudinal study doi:10.1037/0012-1649.29.4.622 Entry in Sources

    Among 1,771 children surveyed in sixth and seventh grade, early adolescents who believed their parents asserted power and did not relax restrictions, and those who saw few chances to take part in family decisions (and no increase in such chances), were higher in an extreme orientation toward peers and in seeking advice from peers.

    Cited on: By age: Preteens (10-12 years), The best-proven approach, Situations, Printables: One-page summary (10-12 years)

  12. Gilkerson, J., Richards, J. A., Warren, S. F., Oller, D. K., Russo, R., & Vohr, B. (2018). Language Experience in the Second Year of Life and Language Outcomes in Late Childhood. Pediatrics, 142(4), e20174276.

    Longitudinal study doi:10.1542/peds.2017-4276 PubMed 30201624 Entry in Sources

    In 146 infants and toddlers (aged 2-36 months) recorded at home for a full day each month for 6 months, the number of adult-child conversational turns at 18-24 months accounted for 14%-27% of the variance in IQ, verbal comprehension and vocabulary scores 10 years later (at ages 9-14) after controlling for socioeconomic status, while the link between adult word counts and language outcomes was considerably weakened by that control.

    Cited on: Learning: Toddlers (1-3 years), Encouraging learning

  13. Hyman, S. L., Levy, S. E., Myers, S. M., Council on Children With Disabilities, Section on Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, Kuo, D. Z., Apkon, S., Davidson, L. F., Ellerbeck, K. A., Foster, J. E. A., Noritz, G. H., Leppert, M. O., Saunders, B. S., Stille, C., Yin, L., Weitzman, C. C., Childers, D. O., Levine, J. M., Peralta-Carcelen, A. M., Poon, J. K., . . . Bridgemohan, C. (2020). Identification, Evaluation, and Management of Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder. Pediatrics, 145(1), e20193447.

    Position statement doi:10.1542/peds.2019-3447 PubMed 31843864 Entry in Sources

    The American Academy of Pediatrics’ 2020 clinical report on autism spectrum disorder continues to recommend standardized autism screening at 18 and 24 months with ongoing developmental surveillance, notes that autism can be diagnosed as young as 18 months, and states that there is an increasing evidence base for behavioral and other interventions that address specific skills and symptoms.

    Cited on: By age: Toddlers (1-3 years), The best-proven approach, About

  14. Joussemet, M., Landry, R., & Koestner, R. (2008). A self-determination theory perspective on parenting. Canadian Psychology / Psychologie canadienne, 49(3), 194-200.

    Review doi:10.1037/a0012754 Entry in Sources

    A review distinguishes parental autonomy support from permissiveness and independence promotion and reports clear and consistent positive effects across different types of studies: autonomy support was associated with infants’ motivation and toddlers’ internalization in observation studies, related to children’s adjustment at school in parent interview studies, and, as perceived by adolescents, linked to their psychosocial functioning in self-report studies.

    Cited on: By age: Toddlers (1-3 years), By age: School age (7-10 years), Toolbox, Learning: Babies (0-12 months), Learning: Toddlers (1-3 years), Learning: School age (7-10 years), Learning: Preteens (10-12 years), Encouraging learning

  15. Kendrick, D., Young, B., Mason-Jones, A. J., Ilyas, N., Achana, F. A., Cooper, N. J., Hubbard, S. J., Sutton, A. J., Smith, S., Wynn, P., Mulvaney, C. A., Watson, M. C., & Coupland, C. (2012). Home safety education and provision of safety equipment for injury prevention. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2014(10).

    Meta-analysis doi:10.1002/14651858.cd005014.pub3 PubMed 22972081 Entry in Sources

    A Cochrane review of 98 studies of home safety education for those aged 19 and under, with or without low-cost, discounted or free safety equipment, found a lack of evidence that it reduced burns and scalds (thermal injuries) or poisoning, and only some evidence that it may reduce injury rates (IRR 0.89, 95% CI 0.78 to 1.01) after controlled before-and-after studies were adjusted for baseline injury rates.

    Cited on: By age: Babies (0-12 months)

  16. Kennedy, D. E., & Kramer, L. (2008). Improving Emotion Regulation and Sibling Relationship Quality: The More Fun With Sisters and Brothers Program. Family Relations, 57(5), 567-578.

    Experiment doi:10.1111/j.1741-3729.2008.00523.x Entry in Sources

    In an evaluation of the More Fun With Sisters and Brothers Program with 4- to 8-year-old siblings from 95 families, sibling relationship quality and emotion regulation improved for program participants (n = 55) compared with a wait-list group (n = 40), and participating children needed less parental direction to control negative emotions.

    Cited on: By age: Starting school (5-7 years), The best-proven approach, Situations, Printables: One-page summary (5-7 years)

  17. Kerr, M., & Stattin, H. (2000). What parents know, how they know it, and several forms of adolescent adjustment: Further support for a reinterpretation of monitoring. Developmental Psychology, 36(3), 366-380.

    Cross-sectional study doi:10.1037/0012-1649.36.3.366 PubMed 10830980 Entry in Sources

    Among 1,186 14-year-olds in Sweden, high parental knowledge was linked with better adjustment, but children’s spontaneous disclosure explained more of that link than parents’ tracking and surveillance did; parents’ control efforts were linked with good adjustment only once children’s feelings of being controlled, which went with poor adjustment, were set aside.

    Cited on: By age: Preteens (10-12 years), Printables: One-page summary (10-12 years)

  18. Laursen, B., Coy, K. C., & Collins, W. A. (1998). Reconsidering Changes in Parent-Child Conflict across Adolescence: A Meta-Analysis. Child Development, 69(3), 817-832.

    Meta-analysis doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1998.00817.x PubMed 9680687 Entry in Sources

    Meta-analyses of parent-child conflict across adolescence found little support for the idea that conflict rises and then falls: the rate of conflict declined from early to mid-adolescence and again to late adolescence, while the heat of conflict (its affect) increased from early to mid-adolescence and with pubertal maturation; conclusions about puberty and affect rest on few studies.

    Cited on: By age: Preteens (10-12 years), Situations, Printables: One-page summary (10-12 years)

  19. Lereya, S. T., Samara, M., & Wolke, D. (2013). Parenting behavior and the risk of becoming a victim and a bully/victim: A meta-analysis study. Child Abuse & Neglect, 37(12), 1091-1108.

    Meta-analysis doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2013.03.001 PubMed 23623619 Entry in Sources

    A meta-analysis of prospective and cross-sectional studies found that children exposed to negative parenting (abuse, neglect, maladaptive parenting) were more likely to be bullied or to be both bullies and victims, with small to moderate effects, while positive parenting (good communication, a warm and affectionate relationship, involvement and support, and supervision) was protective, with small to moderate effects; the authors conclude that anti-bullying work should include families and start before school.

    Cited on: By age: Preteens (10-12 years)

  20. Madigan, S., Browne, D., Racine, N., Mori, C., & Tough, S. (2019). Association Between Screen Time and Children’s Performance on a Developmental Screening Test. JAMA Pediatrics, 173(3), 244.

    Longitudinal study doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2018.5056 PubMed 30688984 Entry in Sources

    In a longitudinal study of 2,441 mothers and children in Calgary, Canada, more screen time at 24 and 36 months was significantly associated with poorer performance on a developmental screening test at 36 months (β, -0.06; 95% CI, -0.10 to -0.01) and 60 months (β, -0.08; 95% CI, -0.13 to -0.02), respectively, with screen time and development both reported by mothers.

    Cited on: Situations, Learning: Toddlers (1-3 years), Learning: Preschoolers (3-5 years), Encouraging learning

  21. Moffitt, T. E., Arseneault, L., Belsky, D., Dickson, N., Hancox, R. J., Harrington, H., Houts, R., Poulton, R., Roberts, B. W., Ross, S., Sears, M. R., Thomson, W. M., & Caspi, A. (2011). A gradient of childhood self-control predicts health, wealth, and public safety. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(7), 2693-2698.

    Longitudinal study doi:10.1073/pnas.1010076108 PubMed 21262822 Entry in Sources

    In a cohort of 1,000 children followed from birth to age 32, childhood self-control predicted physical health, substance dependence, personal finances and criminal offending outcomes along a gradient, independent of intelligence and social class; in a second cohort of 500 sibling pairs, the sibling with lower self-control had poorer outcomes despite shared family background.

    Cited on: Learning: Preschoolers (3-5 years), Learning: Preteens (10-12 years)

  22. Narang, S. K., Fingarson, A., Lukefahr, J., & Council on Child Abuse and Neglect (2020). Abusive Head Trauma in Infants and Children. Pediatrics, 145(4), e20200203.

    Position statement doi:10.1542/peds.2020-0203 Entry in Sources

    The American Academy of Pediatrics policy statement on abusive head trauma updates its 2009 statement and asks pediatricians to stay alert to the signs of abusive head trauma, evaluate suspected cases thoroughly, consult subspecialists when needed, and advocate strongly on the issue.

    Cited on: By age: Babies (0-12 months), Physical discipline

  23. Odgers, C. L., & Jensen, M. R. (2020). Annual Research Review: Adolescent mental health in the digital age: facts, fears, and future directions. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 61(3), 336-348.

    Review doi:10.1111/jcpp.13190 PubMed 31951670 Entry in Sources

    A review of reviews, large preregistered cohort studies and intensive longitudinal studies on digital technology use and adolescent depression and anxiety: most research is correlational and has produced a mix of small positive, negative and null associations; the most rigorous recent studies find small associations that cannot separate cause from effect and are unlikely to be of clinical or practical significance.

    Cited on: By age: Preteens (10-12 years), Learning: Preteens (10-12 years)

  24. Orben, A., & Przybylski, A. K. (2019). The association between adolescent well-being and digital technology use. Nature Human Behaviour, 3(2), 173-182.

    Cross-sectional study doi:10.1038/s41562-018-0506-1 PubMed 30944443 Entry in Sources

    Applying specification curve analysis to three large datasets (355,358 adolescents), the association between digital technology use and adolescent well-being was negative but small, explaining at most 0.4% of the variation in well-being; the authors judge these effects too small to warrant policy change.

    Cited on: By age: Preteens (10-12 years), Situations, Learning: Preteens (10-12 years)

  25. Pinquart, M. (2017). Associations of parenting dimensions and styles with externalizing problems of children and adolescents: An updated meta-analysis. Developmental Psychology, 53(5), 873-932.

    Meta-analysis doi:10.1037/dev0000295 PubMed 28459276 Entry in Sources

    A meta-analysis of 1,435 studies: parental warmth, behavioral control, autonomy granting and an authoritative style showed very small to small negative links with children’s and adolescents’ externalizing problems, while harsh control and psychological control showed the strongest positive links; several dimensions predicted change over time, and the links with warmth, behavioral control, harsh control, psychological control and authoritative parenting ran in both directions.

    Cited on: By age: Preteens (10-12 years), The best-proven approach, When you have little time, Printables: One-page summary (10-12 years)

  26. Pinquart, M. (2017). Associations of Parenting Dimensions and Styles with Internalizing Symptoms in Children and Adolescents: A Meta-Analysis. Marriage & Family Review, 53(7), 613-640.

    Meta-analysis doi:10.1080/01494929.2016.1247761 Entry in Sources

    A meta-analysis of 1,015 studies: parental warmth, behavioral control, autonomy granting and authoritative parenting showed very small to small negative links with children’s and adolescents’ internalizing symptoms (such as anxiety and depression), while harsh control, psychological control, authoritarian and, in part, neglectful parenting went with more symptoms; the links with warmth, psychological control and authoritative parenting ran in both directions.

    Cited on: By age: Preteens (10-12 years), Printables: One-page summary (10-12 years)

  27. Racz, S. J., & McMahon, R. J. (2011). The Relationship Between Parental Knowledge and Monitoring and Child and Adolescent Conduct Problems: A 10-Year Update. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 14(4), 377-398.

    Review doi:10.1007/s10567-011-0099-y PubMed 22086648 Entry in Sources

    A review of 47 studies published between 2000 and 2010 on parental knowledge and monitoring and children’s and adolescents’ conduct problems, following the reinterpretation of monitoring as knowledge that is largely driven by what children choose to tell; inadequate monitoring is widely recognized as a risk factor for conduct problems, and the links run in both directions.

    Cited on: By age: Preteens (10-12 years)

  28. Romeo, R. R., Leonard, J. A., Robinson, S. T., West, M. R., Mackey, A. P., Rowe, M. L., & Gabrieli, J. D. E. (2018). Beyond the 30-Million-Word Gap: Children’s Conversational Exposure Is Associated With Language-Related Brain Function. Psychological Science, 29(5), 700-710.

    Cross-sectional study doi:10.1177/0956797617742725 PubMed 29442613 Entry in Sources

    In 36 children aged 4-6 from a range of socioeconomic backgrounds, those who had more conversational turns with adults in home audio recordings showed greater activation in Broca’s area (left inferior frontal region) during a story-listening functional MRI task, independent of socioeconomic status, IQ and the number of adult and child utterances alone, and this activation significantly explained the link between their language exposure and verbal skill.

    Cited on: Learning: Preschoolers (3-5 years), Encouraging learning

  29. Stattin, H., & Kerr, M. (2000). Parental Monitoring: A Reinterpretation. Child Development, 71(4), 1072-1085.

    Cross-sectional study doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00210 PubMed 11016567 Entry in Sources

    In a study of 703 14-year-olds in Sweden and their parents, what parents knew about their children’s activities came mainly from the children’s own free disclosure, and disclosure was the source of knowledge most closely linked with less delinquency; the authors conclude that tracking and surveillance is not the best prescription for parents.

    Cited on: By age: Preteens (10-12 years), The best-proven approach, Printables: One-page summary (10-12 years)

  30. Steinberg, L., & Monahan, K. C. (2007). Age differences in resistance to peer influence. Developmental Psychology, 43(6), 1531-1543.

    Cross-sectional study doi:10.1037/0012-1649.43.6.1531 PubMed 18020830 Entry in Sources

    Pooling four samples of more than 3,600 people aged 10 to 30, resistance to peer influence increased linearly between ages 14 and 18, with little evidence of growth between 10 and 14 or between 18 and 30.

    Cited on: By age: Preteens (10-12 years), Printables: One-page summary (10-12 years)

  31. Talwar, V., & Lee, K. (2008). Social and Cognitive Correlates of Children’s Lying Behavior. Child Development, 79(4), 866-881.

    Cross-sectional study doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01164.x PubMed 18717895 Entry in Sources

    When children aged 3-8 were told not to peek at a toy, most peeked and later lied about it; their first denials were related to first-order belief understanding (understanding what another person believes) and inhibitory control, and their ability to keep the lie going was related to second-order belief understanding.

    Cited on: By age: Preschoolers (3-5 years), By age: Starting school (5-7 years), By age: School age (7-10 years), Situations, Printables: One-page summary (3-5 years), Printables: One-page summary (5-7 years)

  32. Talwar, V., & Lee, K. (2011). A Punitive Environment Fosters Children’s Dishonesty: A Natural Experiment. Child Development, 82(6), 1751-1758.

    Experiment doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01663.x PubMed 22023095 Entry in Sources

    In a natural experiment with 84 West African 3- and 4-year-olds, most children at a punitive school who peeked at a toy they had been told not to look at lied about it, significantly fewer children at a nonpunitive school did so, and the punitive-school children were better at keeping up the lie under follow-up questions.

    Cited on: By age: Starting school (5-7 years), Situations, Printables: One-page summary (5-7 years)

  33. Talwar, V., Arruda, C., & Yachison, S. (2015). The effects of punishment and appeals for honesty on children’s truth-telling behavior. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 130, 209-217.

    Experiment doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2014.09.011 PubMed 25447716 Entry in Sources

    In an experiment with 372 children aged 4-8, those who heard that the experimenter would be happy if they told the truth were significantly more likely to tell the truth than those who heard no appeal, and those who heard that they would be happy with themselves for telling the truth were significantly less likely to lie when no punishment was expected than when punishment was expected.

    Cited on: By age: Starting school (5-7 years), By age: School age (7-10 years), By age: Preteens (10-12 years), Situations, Printables: One-page summary (5-7 years), Printables: One-page summary (7-10 years)

  34. Teubert, D., & Pinquart, M. (2010). The Association Between Coparenting and Child Adjustment: A Meta-Analysis. Parenting, 10(4), 286-307.

    Meta-analysis doi:10.1080/15295192.2010.492040 Entry in Sources

    A meta-analysis of 59 studies found that coparenting (cooperation, agreement, conflict and triangulation) was associated with children’s adjustment, with generally small effect sizes that remained significant after controlling for individual parenting or marital quality, and coparenting predicted change in child adjustment.

    Cited on: By age: Preschoolers (3-5 years), The best-proven approach, Situations

  35. Tremblay, R. E., Nagin, D. S., Séguin, J. R., Zoccolillo, M., Zelazo, P. D., Boivin, M., Pérusse, D., & Japel, C. (2004). Physical Aggression During Early Childhood: Trajectories and Predictors. Pediatrics, 114(1), e43-e50.

    Longitudinal study doi:10.1542/peds.114.1.e43 PubMed 15231972 Entry in Sources

    In a population sample of 572 families, mothers’ reports at 17, 30 and 42 months showed that most toddlers used some physical aggression on rising trajectories (about 58% modest, 14% high), while 28% showed little or none.

    Cited on: By age: Toddlers (1-3 years), Situations, Printables: One-page summary (1-3 years)

  36. Ttofi, M. M., & Farrington, D. P. (2011). Effectiveness of school-based programs to reduce bullying: a systematic and meta-analytic review. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 7(1), 27-56.

    Meta-analysis doi:10.1007/s11292-010-9109-1 Entry in Sources

    A systematic review and meta-analysis of 44 evaluations of school-based anti-bullying programs: on average bullying decreased by 20 to 23% and victimization by 17 to 20%; more intensive programs, programs with parent meetings, firm disciplinary methods and improved playground supervision were more effective, while work with peers was associated with an increase in victimization.

    Cited on: By age: Preteens (10-12 years)

  37. Tucker, C. J., Finkelhor, D., Turner, H., & Shattuck, A. (2013). Association of Sibling Aggression With Child and Adolescent Mental Health. Pediatrics, 132(1), 79-84.

    Cross-sectional study doi:10.1542/peds.2012-3801 PubMed 23776124 Entry in Sources

    In a national probability sample of 3,599 children and youth, those aged 0 to 9 and 10 to 17 who had experienced sibling aggression in the past year (psychological, property, or mild or severe physical assault) reported greater mental health distress, and in general sibling and peer aggression each independently predicted worse mental health.

    Cited on: By age: Starting school (5-7 years), By age: School age (7-10 years), The best-proven approach, Situations, Printables: One-page summary (7-10 years)

  38. Ullsperger, J. M., & Nikolas, M. A. (2017). A meta-analytic review of the association between pubertal timing and psychopathology in adolescence: Are there sex differences in risk?. Psychological Bulletin, 143(9), 903-938.

    Meta-analysis doi:10.1037/bul0000106 PubMed 28530427 Entry in Sources

    A meta-analysis of 101 articles found that earlier pubertal timing was linked with more emotional and behavior problems across all domains measured, for boys as well as girls, with effects that were small in magnitude (d about 0.20); adolescent sex did not moderate the effect.

    Cited on: By age: Preteens (10-12 years), Printables: One-page summary (10-12 years)

  39. Wakschlag, L. S., et al. (2012). Defining the developmental parameters of temper loss in early childhood: implications for developmental psychopathology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 53(11), 1099-1108.

    Cross-sectional study doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2012.02595.x PubMed 22928674 Entry in Sources

    In a diverse community sample of 1,490 preschoolers, nearly all had tantrums sometimes (83.7%) but only 8.6% had daily tantrums, and clinically concerning temper loss tended to be unpredictable, prolonged and/or destructive rather than a reaction to frustration in expectable situations.

    Cited on: By age: Toddlers (1-3 years), By age: Preschoolers (3-5 years), The best-proven approach, Situations, Printables: One-page summary (1-3 years), Printables: One-page summary (3-5 years), About

  40. Wolke, D., Bilgin, A., & Samara, M. (2017). Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis: Fussing and Crying Durations and Prevalence of Colic in Infants. The Journal of Pediatrics, 185, 55-61.e4.

    Meta-analysis doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2017.02.020 PubMed 28385295 Entry in Sources

    Pooling 28 diary studies of 8,690 infants, this meta-analysis found average fussing and crying of 117-133 minutes a day in the first 6 weeks, falling to 68 minutes by 10-12 weeks, with no statistical evidence for a universal crying peak at 6 weeks.

    Cited on: By age: Babies (0-12 months), Printables: One-page summary (0-12 months)

  41. Wolraich, M. L., Hagan, J. F., Allan, C., Chan, E., Davison, D., Earls, M., Evans, S. W., Flinn, S. K., Froehlich, T., Frost, J., Holbrook, J. R., Lehmann, C. U., Lessin, H. R., Okechukwu, K., Pierce, K. L., Winner, J. D., Zurhellen, W., & Subcommittee on Children and Adolescents With Attention-Deficit/Hyperactive Disorder (2019). Clinical Practice Guideline for the Diagnosis, Evaluation, and Treatment of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder in Children and Adolescents. Pediatrics, 144(4), e20192528.

    Position statement doi:10.1542/peds.2019-2528 PubMed 31570648 Entry in Sources

    The American Academy of Pediatrics’ 2019 ADHD clinical practice guideline made only incremental updates to its 2011 recommendations, adding a key action statement on diagnosing and treating co-occurring conditions, updating its process of care algorithm and identifying systemic barriers that hamper clinicians’ ability to follow the recommendations.

    Cited on: The best-proven approach

  42. Yogman, M., Garner, A., Hutchinson, J., Hirsh-Pasek, K., Golinkoff, R. M., Committee on Psychosocial Aspects of Child and Family Health, & Council on Communications and Media (2018). The Power of Play: A Pediatric Role in Enhancing Development in Young Children. Pediatrics, 142(3), e20182058.

    Position statement doi:10.1542/peds.2018-2058 PubMed 30126932 Entry in Sources

    In a clinical report, the American Academy of Pediatrics states that research shows developmentally appropriate play with parents and peers is a singular opportunity to promote the social-emotional, cognitive, language and self-regulation skills that build executive function, gives pediatricians the information they need to write a prescription for play at well visits, and says pediatricians can play an important role in emphasizing a balanced early-childhood curriculum that includes playful learning.

    Cited on: Learning: Babies (0-12 months), Learning: Toddlers (1-3 years), Learning: Preschoolers (3-5 years), Printables: Learning at home one-pager (1-3 years), Encouraging learning

  43. Zubler, J. M., Wiggins, L. D., Macias, M. M., Whitaker, T. M., Shaw, J. S., Squires, J. K., Pajek, J. A., Wolf, R. B., Slaughter, K. S., Broughton, A. S., Gerndt, K. L., Mlodoch, B. J., & Lipkin, P. H. (2022). Evidence-Informed Milestones for Developmental Surveillance Tools. Pediatrics, e2021052138.

    Review doi:10.1542/peds.2021-052138 PubMed 35132439 Entry in Sources

    An expert working group convened by the American Academy of Pediatrics revised CDC’s developmental surveillance checklists to include milestones that most children (75% or more) would be expected to reach by specific well-child visit ages, resulting in a 26.4% reduction and 40.9% replacement of the previous milestones.

    Cited on: The best-proven approach, Discipline by age, About

Sleep, routines, screens, meals and homework

  1. American Academy of Pediatrics, Council on Communications and Media (2016). Media and Young Minds. Pediatrics, 138(5), e20162591.

    Position statement doi:10.1542/peds.2016-2591 Entry in Sources

    For children younger than 18 months the AAP discouraged screen media other than video-chatting; for 18 to 24 months it advised parents who introduce media to choose high-quality content and use it together with the child; for children older than 2 it advised limiting media to 1 hour or less a day of high-quality programming, shared with a parent.

    Cited on: By age: Babies (0-12 months), By age: Toddlers (1-3 years), Toolbox, Situations, Learning: Babies (0-12 months), Learning: Toddlers (1-3 years), Learning: Preschoolers (3-5 years), Learning: Starting school (5-7 years), Printables: One-page summary (0-12 months), Printables: Learning at home one-pager (0-12 months), Printables: Learning at home one-pager (1-3 years), Printables: Learning at home one-pager (3-5 years), Printables: Learning at home one-pager (5-7 years), Encouraging learning

  2. Barger, M. M., Kim, E. M., Kuncel, N. R., & Pomerantz, E. M. (2019). The relation between parents’ involvement in children’s schooling and children’s adjustment: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 145(9), 855-890.

    Meta-analysis doi:10.1037/bul0000201 PubMed 31305088 Entry in Sources

    A meta-analysis of 448 studies including 480,830 families found small positive associations (rs = .13 to .23) between parents’ naturally occurring involvement in children’s schooling and children’s achievement, engagement and motivation, the only exception being that parents’ homework assistance was negatively associated with achievement (r = -.15) but not with engagement (r = .07) or motivation (r = .05).

    Cited on: By age: School age (7-10 years), By age: Preteens (10-12 years), Situations, Learning: Starting school (5-7 years), Learning: School age (7-10 years), Learning: Preteens (10-12 years), Printables: One-page summary (7-10 years), Encouraging learning

  3. Cain, N., & Gradisar, M. (2010). Electronic media use and sleep in school-aged children and adolescents: A review. Sleep Medicine, 11(8), 735-742.

    Review doi:10.1016/j.sleep.2010.02.006 PubMed 20673649 Entry in Sources

    A review of 36 papers on sleep and electronic media (television, computers, gaming, the internet, mobile phones and music) in school-aged children and adolescents found delayed bedtime and shorter total sleep time to be the outcomes most consistently related to media use.

    Cited on: By age: Preteens (10-12 years), Situations, Learning: Preteens (10-12 years), Printables: One-page summary (10-12 years), Printables: Learning at home one-pager (10-12 years)

  4. Cooper, H., Robinson, J. C., & Patall, E. A. (2006). Does Homework Improve Academic Achievement? A Synthesis of Research, 1987-2003. Review of Educational Research, 76(1), 1-62.

    Systematic review doi:10.3102/00346543076001001 Entry in Sources

    A synthesis of US homework research from 1987 to 2003 found that all studies had design flaws but that the evidence was generally consistent in showing a positive influence of homework on achievement, and studies reporting simple correlations found a stronger homework-achievement link in Grades 7-12 than in kindergarten to Grade 6 (K-6).

    Cited on: By age: School age (7-10 years), By age: Preteens (10-12 years), Situations, Learning: Starting school (5-7 years), Learning: School age (7-10 years), Learning: Preteens (10-12 years), Printables: One-page summary (7-10 years)

  5. Council on Communications and Media (2016). Media Use in School-Aged Children and Adolescents. Pediatrics, 138(5), e20162592.

    Position statement doi:10.1542/peds.2016-2592 PubMed 27940794 Entry in Sources

    The American Academy of Pediatrics’ policy statement for ages 5 through 18 notes both benefits of media (ideas, knowledge, social contact and support) and risks (weight and sleep, inappropriate content and contacts, privacy), says the evidence does not support a one-size-fits-all approach, and asks parents to make a Family Media Use Plan with consistent rules, boundaries on content and personal information, mentoring and open communication about media.

    Cited on: By age: Preteens (10-12 years), Situations, Learning: Preteens (10-12 years), Printables: One-page summary (10-12 years)

  6. Fiese, B. H., Tomcho, T. J., Douglas, M., Josephs, K., Poltrock, S., & Baker, T. (2002). A review of 50 years of research on naturally occurring family routines and rituals: Cause for celebration?. Journal of Family Psychology, 16(4), 381-390.

    Review doi:10.1037/0893-3200.16.4.381 Entry in Sources

    A qualitative review of 32 publications found family routines and rituals related to parenting competence, child adjustment and marital satisfaction, while noting that the studies used inconsistent measures and convenience samples and did not separate direct from indirect effects.

    Cited on: By age: Babies (0-12 months), By age: Starting school (5-7 years), Toolbox, When you have little time, Printables: One-page summary (5-7 years)

  7. Galloway, A. T., Fiorito, L. M., Francis, L. A., & Birch, L. L. (2006). ‘Finish your soup’: Counterproductive effects of pressuring children to eat on intake and affect. Appetite, 46(3), 318-323.

    Experiment doi:10.1016/j.appet.2006.01.019 PubMed 16626838 Entry in Sources

    In a repeated-measures experiment, preschoolers ate significantly more food and made far fewer negative comments about it when they were not pressured to eat than when they were pressured by a request to finish their food.

    Cited on: Situations

  8. Hale, L., & Guan, S. (2015). Screen time and sleep among school-aged children and adolescents: A systematic literature review. Sleep Medicine Reviews, 21, 50-58.

    Systematic review doi:10.1016/j.smrv.2014.07.007 PubMed 25193149 Entry in Sources

    A systematic review of 67 studies of school-aged children and adolescents, published from 1999 to early 2014, found that screen time was adversely associated with sleep, mainly shorter duration and later timing, in 90% of studies, although a causal link was not confirmed.

    Cited on: By age: School age (7-10 years), By age: Preteens (10-12 years), Situations, Learning: Starting school (5-7 years), Learning: School age (7-10 years), Learning: Preteens (10-12 years), Printables: One-page summary (7-10 years), Printables: Learning at home one-pager (7-10 years)

  9. Hill, N. E., & Tyson, D. F. (2009). Parental involvement in middle school: A meta-analytic assessment of the strategies that promote achievement. Developmental Psychology, 45(3), 740-763.

    Meta-analysis doi:10.1037/a0015362 PubMed 19413429 Entry in Sources

    A meta-analysis of 50 studies of parental involvement in middle school found that involvement was positively associated with achievement, with the exception of parental help with homework, and that involvement reflecting academic socialization had the strongest positive association.

    Cited on: By age: School age (7-10 years), By age: Preteens (10-12 years), Situations, Learning: School age (7-10 years), Learning: Preteens (10-12 years)

  10. Kuhl, P. K., Tsao, F.-M., & Liu, H.-M. (2003). Foreign-language experience in infancy: Effects of short-term exposure and social interaction on phonetic learning. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 100(15), 9096-9101.

    Experiment doi:10.1073/pnas.1532872100 PubMed 12861072 Entry in Sources

    In two experiments with 9-month-old American infants, 12 laboratory sessions with live native Mandarin speakers reversed the decline in perceiving Mandarin speech sounds seen in an English-only control group, while the same Mandarin exposure through audiovisual or audio-only recordings had no effect.

    Cited on: By age: Babies (0-12 months), Learning: Babies (0-12 months)

  11. Mindell, J. A., Kuhn, B., Lewin, D. S., Meltzer, L. J., & Sadeh, A. (2006). Behavioral Treatment of Bedtime Problems and Night Wakings in Infants and Young Children. Sleep, 29(10), 1263-1276.

    Review doi:10.1093/sleep/29.10.1263 PubMed 17068979 Entry in Sources

    This review of 52 treatment studies, published by the American Academy of Sleep Medicine, found behavioral interventions effective for bedtime problems and night wakings in infants and young children: 94% of studies reported efficacy, and more than 80% of treated children showed clinically significant improvement lasting 3 to 6 months.

    Cited on: Toolbox, Situations, When you have little time

  12. Mindell, J. A., Telofski, L. S., Wiegand, B., & Kurtz, E. S. (2009). A Nightly Bedtime Routine: Impact on Sleep in Young Children and Maternal Mood. Sleep, 32(5), 599-606.

    Randomized trial doi:10.1093/sleep/32.5.599 PubMed 19480226 Entry in Sources

    In a 3-week randomized study of 405 mothers and their infants or toddlers, starting a consistent nightly bedtime routine improved children’s sleep (shorter time to fall asleep, fewer and shorter night wakings) and improved mothers’ mood compared with keeping the usual routine.

    Cited on: By age: Babies (0-12 months), By age: Toddlers (1-3 years), Toolbox, Situations, When you have little time, Printables: One-page summary (0-12 months), Printables: One-page summary (1-3 years), Printables: Morning and evening routine chart

  13. Munzer, T., Parga-Belinkie, J., Milkovich, L. M., Tomopoulos, S., Ajumobi, T., Cross, C., Gerwin, R., Madigan, S., & American Academy of Pediatrics Council on Communications and Media (2026). Digital Ecosystems, Children, and Adolescents: Policy Statement. Pediatrics, 157(2), e2025075320.

    Position statement doi:10.1542/peds.2025-075320 PubMed 41556917 Entry in Sources

    The AAP’s newest media policy treats television, the internet, social media, video games and interactive assistants as one digital ecosystem and calls for a systems-wide response, including changes to how platforms are designed, alongside guidance for families and clinicians.

    Cited on: By age: School age (7-10 years), Situations, Learning: Toddlers (1-3 years), Learning: Preschoolers (3-5 years), Learning: School age (7-10 years), Learning: Preteens (10-12 years), Encouraging learning

  14. Paruthi, S., et al. (2016). Recommended Amount of Sleep for Pediatric Populations: A Consensus Statement of the American Academy of Sleep Medicine. Journal of Clinical Sleep Medicine, 12(6), 785-786.

    Position statement doi:10.5664/jcsm.5866 PubMed 27250809 Entry in Sources

    The American Academy of Sleep Medicine recommends, per 24 hours and on a regular basis, 12-16 hours of sleep (including naps) for infants 4-12 months, 11-14 hours for children 1-2 years, 10-13 hours for children 3-5 years, and 9-12 hours for children 6-12 years.

    Cited on: By age: Babies (0-12 months), By age: Toddlers (1-3 years), By age: Preschoolers (3-5 years), By age: Starting school (5-7 years), By age: School age (7-10 years), By age: Preteens (10-12 years), Situations, Learning: Babies (0-12 months), Learning: Toddlers (1-3 years), Learning: Preschoolers (3-5 years), Learning: Starting school (5-7 years), Learning: School age (7-10 years), Learning: Preteens (10-12 years), Printables: One-page summary (0-12 months), Printables: Learning at home one-pager (0-12 months), Printables: One-page summary (1-3 years), Printables: Learning at home one-pager (1-3 years), Printables: One-page summary (3-5 years), Printables: Learning at home one-pager (3-5 years), Printables: One-page summary (5-7 years), Printables: Learning at home one-pager (5-7 years), Printables: One-page summary (7-10 years), Printables: Learning at home one-pager (7-10 years), Printables: One-page summary (10-12 years), Printables: Learning at home one-pager (10-12 years), Encouraging learning

  15. Patall, E. A., Cooper, H., & Robinson, J. C. (2008). Parent Involvement in Homework: A Research Synthesis. Review of Educational Research, 78(4), 1039-1101.

    Meta-analysis doi:10.3102/0034654308325185 Entry in Sources

    Meta-analyses found that training parents to be involved in their child’s homework resulted in higher homework completion, fewer homework problems and possibly improved academic performance among elementary school children (14 studies), and that parent involvement in homework was positively associated with achievement-related outcomes for elementary and high school students but negatively for middle school students (22 samples from 20 studies).

    Cited on: By age: School age (7-10 years), By age: Preteens (10-12 years), Situations, Learning: Starting school (5-7 years), Learning: School age (7-10 years), Learning: Preteens (10-12 years), Printables: One-page summary (7-10 years), Encouraging learning

  16. Wardle, J., Herrera, M.-L., Cooke, L., & Gibson, E. L. (2003). Modifying children’s food preferences: the effects of exposure and reward on acceptance of an unfamiliar vegetable. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 57(2), 341-348.

    Randomized trial doi:10.1038/sj.ejcn.1601541 PubMed 12571670 Entry in Sources

    In a randomized controlled trial in three London primary schools (49 children with parental consent), eight daily tastes of sweet red pepper over two weeks significantly increased children’s liking for it and how much they ate compared with no treatment, while a sticker reward for eating at least one piece gave intermediate results that did not differ significantly from either exposure or control.

    Cited on: Situations

Encouraging learning

  1. Adesope, O. O., Trevisan, D. A., & Sundararajan, N. (2017). Rethinking the Use of Tests: A Meta-Analysis of Practice Testing. Review of Educational Research, 87(3), 659-701.

    Meta-analysis doi:10.3102/0034654316689306 Entry in Sources

    A meta-analysis found that taking practice tests was more beneficial for learning than restudying and all other comparison conditions, with the size of the benefit depending on features of the practice tests, participant and study characteristics, the outcomes measured and study methods.

    Cited on: Learning: Preschoolers (3-5 years), Learning: School age (7-10 years), Learning: Preteens (10-12 years), Encouraging learning

  2. Agarwal, P. K., Nunes, L. D., & Blunt, J. R. (2021). Retrieval Practice Consistently Benefits Student Learning: a Systematic Review of Applied Research in Schools and Classrooms. Educational Psychology Review, 33(4), 1409-1453.

    Systematic review doi:10.1007/s10648-021-09595-9 Entry in Sources

    A systematic review of 50 classroom experiments (49 effect sizes, total n = 5,374) found that the majority of effect sizes (57%) showed medium or large benefits from retrieval practice, and that it improved learning across a variety of education levels, content areas, test delays and formats, although only 6% of experiments were conducted in non-WEIRD countries.

    Cited on: Learning: School age (7-10 years), Learning: Preteens (10-12 years)

  3. Brummelman, E., Thomaes, S., Overbeek, G., Orobio de Castro, B., van den Hout, M. A., & Bushman, B. J. (2014). On feeding those hungry for praise: Person praise backfires in children with low self-esteem. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 143(1), 9-14.

    Experiment doi:10.1037/a0031917 PubMed 23421441 Entry in Sources

    In a study of 313 children (mean age 10.4 years), person praise (praise for personal qualities), but not process praise (praise for behavior), predisposed children, especially those with low self-esteem, to feel ashamed after failure; a separate study of 357 adults found that adults tend to give children with low self-esteem more person praise and less process praise.

    Cited on: Toolbox, Learning: School age (7-10 years), Learning: Preteens (10-12 years), Encouraging learning

  4. Burnette, J. L., Billingsley, J., Banks, G. C., Knouse, L. E., Hoyt, C. L., Pollack, J. M., & Simon, S. (2023). A systematic review and meta-analysis of growth mindset interventions: For whom, how, and why might such interventions work?. Psychological Bulletin, 149(3-4), 174-205.

    Meta-analysis doi:10.1037/bul0000368 PubMed 36227318 Entry in Sources

    A meta-analysis of 53 independent samples from randomized growth mindset intervention studies found effects of d = 0.14 on academic achievement and d = 0.32 on mental health for targeted subgroups with high-fidelity implementation, with wide expected variation across future interventions (95% prediction interval from -0.08 to 0.35 for academic achievement).

    Cited on: Learning: School age (7-10 years), Learning: Preteens (10-12 years), Encouraging learning

  5. Bus, A. G., van IJzendoorn, M. H., & Pellegrini, A. D. (1995). Joint Book Reading Makes for Success in Learning to Read: A Meta-Analysis on Intergenerational Transmission of Literacy. Review of Educational Research, 65(1), 1-21.

    Meta-analysis doi:10.3102/00346543065001001 Entry in Sources

    A meta-analysis of studies on how often parents read to preschoolers found that parent-preschooler reading was related to language growth, emergent literacy and reading achievement, with an overall effect size of d = .59 (about 8% of the variance), not dependent on family socioeconomic status, although the effect seemed to become smaller once children could read on their own.

    Cited on: Learning: Preschoolers (3-5 years), Encouraging learning

  6. Cameron, J., Banko, K. M., & Pierce, W. D. (2001). Pervasive negative effects of rewards on intrinsic motivation: The myth continues. The Behavior Analyst, 24(1), 1-44.

    Meta-analysis doi:10.1007/bf03392017 PubMed 22478353 Entry in Sources

    A meta-analysis that set out to resolve differences between earlier meta-analyses concluded that rewards are generally not harmful to motivation: rewards for low-interest tasks enhanced free-choice intrinsic motivation and, on high-interest tasks, verbal rewards had positive effects, while negative effects appeared on high-interest tasks when rewards were tangible, expected (offered beforehand) and loosely tied to level of performance.

    Cited on: By age: School age (7-10 years), Toolbox, Learning: Toddlers (1-3 years), Learning: Preschoolers (3-5 years), Learning: Starting school (5-7 years), Learning: School age (7-10 years), Learning: Preteens (10-12 years), Printables: Learning at home one-pager (1-3 years), Printables: Learning at home one-pager (3-5 years), Printables: One-page summary (7-10 years), Encouraging learning

  7. Cepeda, N. J., Pashler, H., Vul, E., Wixted, J. T., & Rohrer, D. (2006). Distributed practice in verbal recall tasks: A review and quantitative synthesis. Psychological Bulletin, 132(3), 354-380.

    Meta-analysis doi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.3.354 PubMed 16719566 Entry in Sources

    A meta-analysis of 839 assessments of distributed practice from 317 experiments in 184 articles found that the gap between study sessions and the delay before the final test jointly affect retention, with the study gap that produced the best retention growing longer as the retention interval grew longer.

    Cited on: Learning: School age (7-10 years), Learning: Preteens (10-12 years)

  8. Daucourt, M. C., Napoli, A. R., Quinn, J. M., Wood, S. G., & Hart, S. A. (2021). The home math environment and math achievement: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 147(6), 565-596.

    Meta-analysis doi:10.1037/bul0000330 PubMed 34843299 Entry in Sources

    A preregistered meta-analysis of 64 studies (68 independent samples, 631 effect sizes) found a positive, statistically significant average correlation between the home math environment and children’s math achievement (r = .13), which was robust in sensitivity analyses, with large differences between studies.

    Cited on: Learning: Toddlers (1-3 years), Learning: Preschoolers (3-5 years), Learning: Starting school (5-7 years), Learning: School age (7-10 years), Encouraging learning

  9. Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (1999). A meta-analytic review of experiments examining the effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 125(6), 627-668.

    Meta-analysis doi:10.1037/0033-2909.125.6.627 PubMed 10589297 Entry in Sources

    A meta-analysis of 128 studies found that rewards given for engaging in, completing or performing well on a task significantly undermined free-choice intrinsic motivation (d = -0.40, -0.36 and -0.28), as did rewards overall, tangible rewards and expected rewards, while positive feedback enhanced free-choice behavior (d = 0.33) and self-reported interest (d = 0.31); tangible rewards tended to be more detrimental for children than for college students.

    Cited on: By age: School age (7-10 years), Toolbox, Learning: Toddlers (1-3 years), Learning: Preschoolers (3-5 years), Learning: Starting school (5-7 years), Learning: School age (7-10 years), Learning: Preteens (10-12 years), Printables: Learning at home one-pager (1-3 years), Printables: Learning at home one-pager (3-5 years), Printables: One-page summary (7-10 years), Encouraging learning

  10. Diamond, A., & Lee, K. (2011). Interventions Shown to Aid Executive Function Development in Children 4 to 12 Years Old. Science, 333(6045), 959-964.

    Review doi:10.1126/science.1204529 PubMed 21852486 Entry in Sources

    A review of interventions for children aged 4-12 reports that diverse activities, including computerized training, noncomputerized games, aerobics, martial arts, yoga, mindfulness and school curricula, have improved executive functions, that all successful programs involve repeated practice with progressively increasing challenge, and that children with worse executive functions benefit most.

    Cited on: Learning: Preschoolers (3-5 years), Learning: Starting school (5-7 years), Learning: School age (7-10 years), Learning: Preteens (10-12 years), Encouraging learning

  11. Dowdall, N., Melendez-Torres, G. J., Murray, L., Gardner, F., Hartford, L., & Cooper, P. J. (2020). Shared Picture Book Reading Interventions for Child Language Development: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Child Development, 91(2), e383-e399.

    Meta-analysis doi:10.1111/cdev.13225 PubMed 30737957 Entry in Sources

    A meta-analysis of 19 randomized controlled trials (N = 2,594; mean child ages 1-6 years) found that interventions training parents to share picture books had small effects on children’s expressive language (d = 0.41) and receptive language (d = 0.26) and a large effect on caregivers’ book-sharing competence (d = 1.01), with minimal impact on child language at lower doses.

    Cited on: Learning: Babies (0-12 months), Learning: Toddlers (1-3 years), Learning: Preschoolers (3-5 years), Encouraging learning

  12. Dunlosky, J., Rawson, K. A., Marsh, E. J., Nathan, M. J., & Willingham, D. T. (2013). Improving Students’ Learning With Effective Learning Techniques: Promising Directions From Cognitive and Educational Psychology. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 14(1), 4-58.

    Review doi:10.1177/1529100612453266 PubMed 26173288 Entry in Sources

    A review of 10 learning techniques gave practice testing and distributed practice high utility ratings, because they benefit learners of different ages and abilities and have been shown to boost students’ performance across many criterion tasks.

    Cited on: Learning: School age (7-10 years), Learning: Preteens (10-12 years), Encouraging learning

  13. Fritz, C. O., Morris, P. E., Nolan, D., & Singleton, J. (2007). Expanding retrieval practice: An effective aid to preschool children’s learning. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 60(7), 991-1004.

    Experiment doi:10.1080/17470210600823595 PubMed 17616915 Entry in Sources

    In two experiments with preschool children learning names for toys, expanding retrieval practice doubled recall while a reward incentive did not significantly improve learning, and, with recall tested after 1 minute, 1 day and 2 days, it produced a very large benefit over elaborative study (d = 1.9), about half from spaced scheduling and half from retrieval practice.

    Cited on: Learning: Preschoolers (3-5 years), Learning: Starting school (5-7 years), Encouraging learning

  14. Gunderson, E. A., & Levine, S. C. (2011). Some types of parent number talk count more than others: relations between parents’ input and children’s cardinal-number knowledge. Developmental Science, 14(5), 1021-1032.

    Longitudinal study doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2011.01050.x PubMed 21884318 Entry in Sources

    Parents’ number talk that involved counting or labeling sets of present, visible objects was related to children’s later cardinal-number knowledge while other types of number talk were not, and talk about large sets of present objects (4-10 items) was more robustly predictive than talk about smaller sets, even after controlling for socioeconomic status and other parent talk.

    Cited on: Learning: Toddlers (1-3 years), Learning: Preschoolers (3-5 years), Encouraging learning

  15. Gunderson, E. A., Gripshover, S. J., Romero, C., Dweck, C. S., Goldin-Meadow, S., & Levine, S. C. (2013). Parent Praise to 1- to 3-Year-Olds Predicts Children’s Motivational Frameworks 5 Years Later. Child Development, 84(5), 1526-1541.

    Longitudinal study doi:10.1111/cdev.12064 PubMed 23397904 Entry in Sources

    In 53 families observed at home, parents’ praise of their child’s effort at 14-38 months predicted the child’s incremental motivational framework (believing ability is malleable, attributing success to hard work, enjoying challenges) at 7-8 years, whereas parents’ praise of inherent characteristics was not associated with later fixed-ability frameworks.

    Cited on: Learning: Toddlers (1-3 years), Learning: Preschoolers (3-5 years), Learning: Starting school (5-7 years), Learning: School age (7-10 years), Encouraging learning

  16. Gunderson, E. A., Sorhagen, N. S., Gripshover, S. J., Dweck, C. S., Goldin-Meadow, S., & Levine, S. C. (2018). Parent praise to toddlers predicts fourth grade academic achievement via children’s incremental mindsets. Developmental Psychology, 54(3), 397-409.

    Longitudinal study doi:10.1037/dev0000444 PubMed 29172567 Entry in Sources

    Following the same 53 children, a higher proportion of process praise (praise for effort and strategies) from parents at ages 1-3 predicted better math and reading comprehension achievement in fourth grade via children’s incremental motivational frameworks, specifically their belief that intelligence is malleable rather than their preference for challenging tasks.

    Cited on: Learning: Toddlers (1-3 years), Learning: School age (7-10 years)

  17. Kim, J. S., & Quinn, D. M. (2013). The Effects of Summer Reading on Low-Income Children’s Literacy Achievement From Kindergarten to Grade 8: A Meta-Analysis of Classroom and Home Interventions. Review of Educational Research, 83(3), 386-431.

    Meta-analysis doi:10.3102/0034654313483906 Entry in Sources

    A meta-analysis of 41 classroom- and home-based summer reading interventions in the United States and Canada (kindergarten to Grade 8, 1998-2011) found that children in classroom programs with teacher-directed literacy lessons or home programs with child-initiated book reading improved significantly on multiple reading outcomes compared with control children, with significantly larger benefits for children from low-income backgrounds.

    Cited on: Learning: Starting school (5-7 years), Learning: School age (7-10 years)

  18. Lepper, M. R., Greene, D., & Nisbett, R. E. (1973). Undermining children’s intrinsic interest with extrinsic reward: A test of the “overjustification” hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 28(1), 129-137.

    Experiment doi:10.1037/h0035519 Entry in Sources

    In a field experiment, children who already showed interest in an activity and agreed to do it in order to obtain an extrinsic reward later showed less intrinsic interest in it than children who received an unexpected reward or no reward.

    Cited on: Toolbox, Learning: Preschoolers (3-5 years), Learning: Starting school (5-7 years)

  19. Levine, S. C., Suriyakham, L. W., Rowe, M. L., Huttenlocher, J., & Gunderson, E. A. (2010). What counts in the development of young children’s number knowledge?. Developmental Psychology, 46(5), 1309-1319.

    Longitudinal study doi:10.1037/a0019671 PubMed 20822240 Entry in Sources

    In a longitudinal study of 44 children, the amount of number talk parents produced at 14-30 months varied widely and predicted children’s understanding of the cardinal meanings of number words at 46 months, even after controlling for socioeconomic status and other measures of parent and child talk.

    Cited on: Learning: Toddlers (1-3 years), Encouraging learning

  20. Lipowski, S. L., Pyc, M. A., Dunlosky, J., & Rawson, K. A. (2014). Establishing and explaining the testing effect in free recall for young children. Developmental Psychology, 50(4), 994-1000.

    Experiment doi:10.1037/a0035202 PubMed 24294884 Entry in Sources

    In an experiment with first and third graders learning word lists, a test-plus-restudy condition produced better memory than restudy alone, even for first graders, partly because testing enhanced item-specific processing; third graders, but not first graders, were aware of this benefit.

    Cited on: Learning: Starting school (5-7 years), Learning: School age (7-10 years), Encouraging learning

  21. Macnamara, B. N., & Burgoyne, A. P. (2023). Do growth mindset interventions impact students’ academic achievement? A systematic review and meta-analysis with recommendations for best practices. Psychological Bulletin, 149(3-4), 133-173.

    Meta-analysis doi:10.1037/bul0000352 PubMed 36326645 Entry in Sources

    A systematic review and meta-analysis of 63 studies (N = 97,672) found a small overall effect of growth mindset interventions on academic achievement (average d = 0.05) that was nonsignificant after correcting for potential publication bias, and nonsignificant effects in studies showing the intervention changed students’ mindsets as intended (d = 0.04) and in the highest-quality studies (d = 0.02); the authors conclude that apparent effects are likely due to inadequate study design, reporting flaws and bias.

    Cited on: Learning: School age (7-10 years), Learning: Preteens (10-12 years), Encouraging learning

  22. Mol, S. E., & Bus, A. G. (2011). To read or not to read: A meta-analysis of print exposure from infancy to early adulthood. Psychological Bulletin, 137(2), 267-296.

    Meta-analysis doi:10.1037/a0021890 PubMed 21219054 Entry in Sources

    A meta-analysis of 99 studies (N = 7,669) of leisure-time reading from preschool to university found moderate to strong correlations between print exposure and reading comprehension, technical reading and spelling; print exposure explained 12% of the variance in oral language skills in preschool and kindergarten and 13% in primary school, rising to 34% in college and university.

    Cited on: Learning: Preschoolers (3-5 years), Learning: Starting school (5-7 years), Learning: School age (7-10 years), Learning: Preteens (10-12 years)

  23. Mol, S. E., Bus, A. G., de Jong, M. T., & Smeets, D. J. H. (2008). Added Value of Dialogic Parent-Child Book Readings: A Meta-Analysis. Early Education and Development, 19(1), 7-26.

    Meta-analysis doi:10.1080/10409280701838603 Entry in Sources

    A meta-analysis of 16 studies comparing dialogic reading, in which the child takes an active part, with typical shared reading found a moderate effect on expressive vocabulary (d = .59), but the effect was substantially smaller when children were older (4-5 years) or at risk for language and literacy impairments.

    Cited on: Learning: Toddlers (1-3 years), Learning: Preschoolers (3-5 years), Printables: Learning at home one-pager (3-5 years), Encouraging learning

  24. Mueller, C. M., & Dweck, C. S. (1998). Praise for intelligence can undermine children’s motivation and performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75(1), 33-52.

    Experiment doi:10.1037/0022-3514.75.1.33 Entry in Sources

    In six studies, praise for intelligence had more negative consequences for children’s achievement motivation than praise for effort: fifth graders praised for intelligence cared more about performance goals relative to learning goals and, after failure, showed less persistence, less enjoyment, more low-ability attributions and worse performance than children praised for effort.

    Cited on: Learning: Preschoolers (3-5 years), Learning: School age (7-10 years), Learning: Preteens (10-12 years), Encouraging learning

  25. Ramani, G. B., & Siegler, R. S. (2008). Promoting Broad and Stable Improvements in Low-Income Children’s Numerical Knowledge Through Playing Number Board Games. Child Development, 79(2), 375-394.

    Experiment doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01131.x PubMed 18366429 Entry in Sources

    Low-income preschoolers (mean age 5.4 years) who played a linear number board game for roughly 1 hour improved on numerical magnitude comparison, number line estimation, counting and numeral identification, with gains still present 9 weeks later, while classmates who played the same game with squares varying in color rather than number did not improve on any measure.

    Cited on: Learning: Preschoolers (3-5 years), Learning: Starting school (5-7 years)

  26. Roediger, H. L., & Karpicke, J. D. (2006). Test-Enhanced Learning: Taking Memory Tests Improves Long-Term Retention. Psychological Science, 17(3), 249-255.

    Experiment doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01693.x PubMed 16507066 Entry in Sources

    In two experiments, students who took free-recall tests on prose passages (without feedback) retained substantially more than students who restudied them when the final test came 2 days or 1 week later, although restudying gave better recall after 5 minutes and increased students’ confidence in their ability to remember.

    Cited on: Learning: School age (7-10 years), Learning: Preteens (10-12 years)

  27. Rowe, M. L. (2012). A Longitudinal Investigation of the Role of Quantity and Quality of Child-Directed Speech in Vocabulary Development. Child Development, 83(5), 1762-1774.

    Longitudinal study doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2012.01805.x PubMed 22716950 Entry in Sources

    In a longitudinal study of 50 parent-child pairs observed at child ages 18, 30 and 42 months, parents’ use of diverse and sophisticated vocabulary with toddlers, and of decontextualized language such as narrative with preschoolers, explained additional variation in children’s vocabulary one year later, beyond socioeconomic status, the quantity of parent talk and the child’s earlier vocabulary.

    Cited on: Learning: Toddlers (1-3 years), Learning: Preschoolers (3-5 years)

  28. Sisk, V. F., Burgoyne, A. P., Sun, J., Butler, J. L., & Macnamara, B. N. (2018). To What Extent and Under Which Circumstances Are Growth Mind-Sets Important to Academic Achievement? Two Meta-Analyses. Psychological Science, 29(4), 549-571.

    Meta-analysis doi:10.1177/0956797617739704 PubMed 29505339 Entry in Sources

    Two meta-analyses found that both the relationship between students’ growth mindsets and academic achievement (k = 273, N = 365,915) and the effect of mindset interventions on achievement (k = 43, N = 57,155) were weak overall, although some results suggested that students with low socioeconomic status or who are academically at risk might benefit from mindset interventions.

    Cited on: Learning: Starting school (5-7 years), Learning: School age (7-10 years), Learning: Preteens (10-12 years), Encouraging learning

  29. Skene, K., O’Farrelly, C. M., Byrne, E. M., Kirby, N., Stevens, E. C., & Ramchandani, P. G. (2022). Can guidance during play enhance children’s learning and development in educational contexts? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Child Development, 93(4), 1162-1180.

    Meta-analysis doi:10.1111/cdev.13730 PubMed 35018635 Entry in Sources

    A meta-analysis of 17 studies (mean child ages 1-8 years) found that guided play had a greater positive effect than direct instruction on early math skills (g = 0.24), shape knowledge (g = 0.63) and task switching (g = 0.40), and than free play on spatial vocabulary (g = 0.93), but no differences were identified for other key outcomes.

    Cited on: Learning: Toddlers (1-3 years), Learning: Preschoolers (3-5 years), Encouraging learning

  30. Takacs, Z. K., & Kassai, R. (2019). The efficacy of different interventions to foster children’s executive function skills: A series of meta-analyses. Psychological Bulletin, 145(7), 653-697.

    Meta-analysis doi:10.1037/bul0000195 PubMed 31033315 Entry in Sources

    A series of meta-analyses of 90 experimental studies (100 independent effect sizes, 8,925 children up to 12 years of age) found that executive function skills can be fostered in childhood but no convincing evidence that the benefits remain at follow-up; mindfulness had moderate benefits for typically developing children, self-regulation strategy programs worked best for nontypically developing children, and explicit computerized or noncomputer training had small to moderate effects that were consistently weaker for nontypically developing children.

    Cited on: Learning: Preschoolers (3-5 years), Learning: Starting school (5-7 years), Learning: School age (7-10 years), Learning: Preteens (10-12 years), Printables: Learning at home one-pager (3-5 years), Encouraging learning

  31. Tamis-LeMonda, C. S., Kuchirko, Y., & Song, L. (2014). Why Is Infant Language Learning Facilitated by Parental Responsiveness?. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 23(2), 121-126.

    Review doi:10.1177/0963721414522813 Entry in Sources

    A review reports that parents’ responsiveness to infants’ exploratory and communicative behaviors predicts infant word learning, and proposes that responsiveness helps infants understand that language is a tool for sharing intentions and, through its close timing, contingency and multimodal and didactic content, helps them map words to their referents and grow their vocabulary.

    Cited on: By age: Babies (0-12 months), Learning: Babies (0-12 months), Printables: One-page summary (0-12 months), Printables: Learning at home one-pager (0-12 months), Encouraging learning

  32. Vasquez, A. C., Patall, E. A., Fong, C. J., Corrigan, A. S., & Pine, L. (2016). Parent autonomy support, academic achievement, and psychosocial functioning: A meta-analysis of research. Educational Psychology Review, 28(3), 605-644.

    Meta-analysis doi:10.1007/s10648-015-9329-z Entry in Sources

    A meta-analysis of 36 studies found parent autonomy support related to greater academic achievement and to adaptive psychosocial functioning, including autonomous motivation, psychological health, perceived competence, engagement and positive attitudes toward school, with the strongest relation for psychological health.

    Cited on: By age: School age (7-10 years), By age: Preteens (10-12 years), Toolbox, Learning: Preschoolers (3-5 years), Learning: School age (7-10 years), Learning: Preteens (10-12 years), Printables: One-page summary (7-10 years), Encouraging learning

  33. Weisleder, A., & Fernald, A. (2013). Talking to Children Matters: Early Language Experience Strengthens Processing and Builds Vocabulary. Psychological Science, 24(11), 2143-2152.

    Longitudinal study doi:10.1177/0956797613488145 PubMed 24022649 Entry in Sources

    In Spanish-speaking families low in socioeconomic status, infants who heard more speech addressed directly to them in all-day home recordings became more efficient at processing familiar words in real time and had larger expressive vocabularies by 24 months, while speech they merely overheard was unrelated to vocabulary, and their processing efficiency explained the link between child-directed speech and expressive vocabulary.

    Cited on: Learning: Babies (0-12 months)

  34. Whitehurst, G. J., Falco, F. L., Lonigan, C. J., Fischel, J. E., DeBaryshe, B. D., Valdez-Menchaca, M. C., & Caulfield, M. (1988). Accelerating language development through picture book reading. Developmental Psychology, 24(4), 552-559.

    Experiment doi:10.1037/0012-1649.24.4.552 Entry in Sources

    After a 1-month home program in which parents asked more open-ended questions, expanded on what their child said and did less straight reading, children scored higher than controls on standardized tests of expressive language and used longer utterances; differences were still present, though smaller, 9 months later.

    Cited on: Learning: Toddlers (1-3 years)

  35. Yeager, D. S., Hanselman, P., Walton, G. M., Murray, J. S., Crosnoe, R., Muller, C., Tipton, E., Schneider, B., Hulleman, C. S., Hinojosa, C. P., Paunesku, D., Romero, C., Flint, K., Roberts, A., Trott, J., Iachan, R., Buontempo, J., Yang, S. M., Carvalho, C. M., . . . Dweck, C. S. (2019). A national experiment reveals where a growth mindset improves achievement. Nature, 573(7774), 364-369.

    Experiment doi:10.1038/s41586-019-1466-y PubMed 31391586 Entry in Sources

    In a nationally representative sample of US high school students, a short (under one hour) online growth mindset intervention improved grades among lower-achieving students and increased overall enrollment in advanced mathematics courses, and it changed grades in schools where peer norms aligned with its messages.

    Cited on: Learning: School age (7-10 years), Learning: Preteens (10-12 years), Encouraging learning